MC 2011

Mobile Communications
Dr.-Ing. Ibrahim Ismail Al-Kebsi

2011
Chapter One

Introduction to Mobile Radio Communications
In 1897, Marconi demonstrated radios ability to provide
continuous contact with ships sailing the English channel.

By 1934, 194 municipal police radio systems and 58 state
police stations had adopted Amplitude Modulation (AM) for
public safety in the US.
5000 radios were installed in mobiles.
Vehicles ignition noise was the major problem.

In 1935, Edwin Armstrong demonstrated Frequency
Modulation (FM) for the first time.
FM has been the primary modulation technique for mobile
communication systems throughout the world.

Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

The Metric System
Prefix Symbol 10
n
Since
yotta Y 10
24
1991
zetta Z 10
21
1991
exa E 10
18
1975
peta P 10
15
1975
tera T 10
12
1960
giga G 10
9
1960
mega M 10
6
1960
kilo k 10
3
1795
hecto h 10
2
1795
deca 10
1

1 1 1795
deci d 10
1
1795
centi c 10
2
1795
milli m 10
3
1795
micro 10
6
1960
nano n 10
9
1960
pico p 10
12
1960
femto f 10
15
1964
atto a 10
18
1964
zepto z 10
21
1991
yocto y 10
24
1991
The metric system
was introduced in
1795 with six
prefixes. The other
dates relate to
recognition by a
resolution of
the General
Conference on
Weights and
Measures (GCWM).
The ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
ISM Band
The industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands
were originally reserved internationally for noncommercial
use of RF electromagnetic fields for industrial, scientific and
medical purposes.

Free of license.

The ISM bands are defined by the ITU-R.
900 MHz, 1.8 GHz, 2.4 GHz, 5.8 GHz Bands.
Most microwave ovens use 2.45 GHz.

Individual countries' use of the bands designated in these
sections may differ due to variations in national radio
regulations.
Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications (Cont.)
World war II accelerated the
improvements of the worlds
manufacturing and miniaturization
capabilities.

The number of US mobile users climbed
from several thousand in 1940 to:
86,000 by 1948.
695,000 by 1958.
1.4 million users in 1962.

The vast majority of mobile users in the
1960s were not connected to the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
They were not able to directly dial
telephone numbers from their vehicles.
One of the first mobile radio
telephony system used for
police application purpose
THE FIRST CAR radiotelephone (1946-53)
Motorola "Deluxe Urban
radiotelephone installed in a taxicab in
Delaware in 1948
Radiotelephone after 1964
Mobile Phone from 1964
VHF High Band
Channel
Base
Frequency
(MHz)
Mobile
Frequency
(MHz)
JL 152.51 157.77
YL 152.54 157.80
JP 152.57 157.83
YP 152.60 157.86
YJ 152.63 157.89
YK 152.66 157.92
JS 152.69 157.95
YS 152.72 157.98
YA 152.75 158.01
JK 152.78 158.04
JA 152.81 158.07

With the boom in Citizens Band (CB) radio and cordless appliances.
The number of users of mobile and portable radio in 1995 was about 100
million (37% of US population).

Research in 1991 estimated between 25 and 40 million cordless
telephone were in use in the US.
This number was 100 million as of late 2001.

The number of worldwide cellular telephone users grew from
25000 in 1984 to about 25 million in 1993.
Customer growth rates in excess of 50% per year.

The worldwide wireless subscriber base of cellular and PCS
subscriber is approximately 630 million as of late 2001 compared
with 1 billion wired telephone lines.

In the first few years of 21
st
century Over 1% of the
worldwide wireless subscriber population had already
abandoned wired telephone service for home use.

They had begun to rely solely on their cellular service
provider for telephone access.

Consumer are expected to increasingly use wireless service
as their sole telephone access method in the years to
come.
Mobile radiotelephony in the US
The first public mobile telephone service was introduced in 25 major cities
in 1946.
Single high-powered transmitter.
Large tower.
Cover distance of over 50 km.
Called FM push-to-talk telephone system.
The actual telephone-grade speech occupies only 3 kHz.
Used 120 kHz of RF bandwidth. Why?
Half duplex mode.
Call placement was manual operation.

In 1950 Federal Communications Commission (FCC) doubled the number
of mobile telephone channels per market.
No new spectrum allocation.
Channel bandwidth is 60 kHz.

The FM bandwidth of voice transmitter was cut to 30 kHz by the mid
1960s.

Mobile radiotelephony in the US (cont.)
In the 1950s and 1960s automatic channel truncking was
introduced and implemented under the label IMTS
(Improved Mobile Telephone Service).
Full duplex.
Auto trunking phone systems.
Become saturated in major markets.
Still in use in the US.
Very spectrally inefficient compared to todays US cellular system.

By 1976 the Bell Mobile Phone service for the NY city
market had only twelve channels
Could serve only 543 paying customers.
There was waiting list of over 3,700 people.
Service was poor
suffered from call blocking . why?

During the 1950s and 1960s, AT&T and Bell laboratories developed the
theory and techniques of cellular radiotelephony.
Break a coverage zone into small cells.
Reuse portions of the spectrum usage.
Greater system infrastructure.
Channels are only reused when there is sufficient distance between transmitters to
prevent interference.

AT&T proposed the concept of a cellular mobile system to the FCC in
1968.

In 1983 the FCC finally allocated 666 duplex channels for the US
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS).
In 800 MHz band.
40 MHz of spectrum.
Duplex channel with bandwidth of 60 kHz.
The first US cellular telephone system.

In 1989 FCC granted an additional 166 channels to US cellular service
to accommodate the rapid growth and demand.

In the late 1991 the first US Digital Cellular (USDC)
system hardware was installed in major US cities.

The USDC Interim Standard (IS-54) and later (IS-136)
allowed cellular operators to replace gracefully some
single-user analog channels with digital channels.
Digital channel can support 3 users in the same 30 kHz
bandwidth.
US carriers gradually phased out AMPS as more users
accepted digital phones.
Capacity improvement offered by USDC is 3 times that of
AMPS.
Using the digital modulation increases the capacity to 6
users/channel in the same 30 kHz bandwidth.

A cellular system based on code division multiple
Access (CDMA) has been developed by
Qualcomm and standardized by the
Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) as
an Interim Standard (IS-95).
Variable number of users in 1.25 MHz.
Using direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
Has inherent interference resistance properties.
Can operate with much smaller signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR).
Can use the same set of frequencies in every cell.
High users capacity.
In the early 1990s a new Specialized Mobile Radio service (SMR)
was developed to compete with US cellular radio carriers.
Small groups of radio system licenses from a large number of independent
private radio service providers have been purchased.
Nextel and Motorola formed an extended SMR (E-SMR) network in the 800
MHz band.
By using Motorolas Integrated Radio System (MIRS), SMR integrates voice
dispatch, cellular phone service, messaging, and data transmission capabilities
on the same network.
In 1995 Motorola replaced MIRS with the integrated Digital Enhanced
Network (iDEN).

In early 1995 the Personal Communication Service (PCS) licenses in
1800/1900 MHz band were auctioned by the US government to
wireless providers.
It was new wireless service that complement as well as compete with cellular
and SMR.
One of the stipulations of PCS license was the majority of the coverage area
be operational before the year 2000.
Major Mobile Radio Standards in North
America
Standard Type Year of
Introduction
Multiple
Access
Frequency
Band
Modulation Channel
BW
AMPS Cellular 1983 FDMA 824-894
MHz
FM 30 kHz
NAMPS Cellular 1992 FDMA 824-894
MHz
FM 10 kHz
USDC Cellular 1991 TDMA 824-894
MHz
t/4- DQPSK 30 kHz
CDPD Cellular 1993 FH/Packet 824-894
MHz
GMSK 30 kHz
IS-95 Cellular/
PCs
1993 CDMA 824-894
MHz
1.8-2.0
GHz
QPSK/ BPSK 1.25 MHz
GSC Paging 1970s Simplex Several FSK 12.5 kHz
Major Mobile Radio Standards in North America (cont.)
Introduction
Multiple
Access
Frequency
Band
Modulation Channel
BW
POCSAG Paging 1970s Simplex Several FSK 12.5 kHz
FLEX Paging 1993 Simplex Several 4-FSK 15 kHz
DCS-1900
(GSM)
PCS 1994 TDMA 1.85-1.99
GHz
GMSK 200 kHz
PACS Cordless
/PCS
1994 TDMA/
FDMA
1.85-1.99
GHz
t/4- DQPSK 300 kHz
MIRS SMR/
PCS
1994 TDMA Several 16-QAM 25 kHz
iDEN SMR/
PCS
1994 TDMA Several 16-QAM 25 kHz
Major Mobile Radio Standards in Europe
Introduction
Multiple
Access
Frequency
Band
Modulation Channel
BW
ETACS Cellular 1985 FDMA 900 MHz FM 25 kHz
NMT-450 Cellular 1981 FDMA 450-470
MHz
FM 25 kHz
NMT-900 Cellular 1986 FDMA 890-960
MHz
FM 12.5 kHz
GSM Cellular/
PCS
1990 TDMA 890-960
MHz
GMSK 200 kHz
C-450 Cellular 1985 FDMA 450-465
MHz
FM 20 kHz/
10 kHz
ERMES Paging 1993 FDMA Several 4-FSK 25 kHz
CT2 Cordless 1989 FDMA 864-868
MHz
GFSK 100 kHz
DECT Cordless 1993 TDMA 1880-
1900 MHz
GFSK 1.728
MHz
DCS-
1800
Cordless/
PCS
1993 TDMA 1710-
1880 MHz
GMSK 200 kHz
Major Mobile Radio Standards in Japan
Introduction
Multiple
Access
Frequency
Band
Modulation Channel
BW
JTACS Cellular 1988 FDMA 860-925
MHz
FM 25 kHz
PDC Cellular 1993 TDMA 810-1501
MHz
t/4- DQPSK

25 kHz
NTT Cellular 1979 FDMA 400/800
MHz
FM 25 kHz
NTACS Cellular 1993 FDMA 843-925
MHz
FM 12.5 kHz
NTT Paging 1979 FDMA 280 MHz FSK 12.5 kHz
NEC Paging 1979 FDMA Several FSK 10 kHz
PHS Cordless 1993 TDMA 1895-1907
MHz
t/4- DQPSK

300 kHz
Abbreviations
CDPD: Cellular Digital Packet Data.
DCS: Digital Communication System.
FLEX: 4-level FSK based paging standard developed by Motorola.
GSC: Golay Sequential Coding.
MIRS: Motorola Integrated Radio System (for SMR use).
NADC: North American Digital Cellular.
NEC: Nippon Denki Kabushiki Gaisha.
NMT: Nordic Mobile Telephone.
NTACS: Narrowband Total Access Communication System.
NTT : Nippon Telephone and Telegraph.
POCSAG: Post Office Code Standard Advisory Group.
JTACS: Japanese Total Access Communication System.
PACS: Personal Access Communication System.
PDC: Pacific Digital Cellular.
PHS: Personal Handyphone System.

Wireless communications System Definitions
Base Transceiver station (BTS)
A fixed station in a mobile radio system used for radio communication
with mobile stations.
Base stations are located at the center or on the edge of a coverage
region and consist of radio channels, transmitter and receiver
antennas mounted on a tower.

Control channel
Radio channel used for transmission of call setup, call request, and call
initiation.

Forward channel
Radio channel used for transmission of information from the base
station to the mobile.

Wireless communications System Definitions (cont.)
Full Duplex Systems
Communication systems which allow simultaneous two-way
communication.
Transmission and reception is typically on two different channels (FDD)
although new cordless/PCS systems are using TDD.

Half Duplex Systems
Communication systems which allow two-way communication by using
the same radio channel for both transmission and reception.
At any given time the user can only either transmit or receive information.

handoff
The process of transferring a mobile station from one channel or base
station to another.

Mobile station (MS)
A station in the cellular radio service intended for use while in motion at
unspecified locations.
Mobile stations may be hand-held personal units (portables) or installed in
vehicles (mobiles).

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
Switching center which coordinates the routing of calls in a large service area.
In a cellular radio system the MSC connects the cellular base stations and the
mobile to the PSTN.
An MSC is also called a Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO).

Base Station Controller (BSC)
Typically a BSC has tens or even hundreds of BTSs under its control.
The BSC handles allocation of radio channels, receives measurements from the
mobile phones, and controls handovers from BTS to BTS

Page
A brief message which is broadcast over the entire service area, usually in a
simulcast fashion by many base stations at the same time.


Reverse channel
Radio channel used for transmission of information from the mobile to base
station.

Roamer
A mobile station which operates in a service area other than that from which
service has been subscribed.

Simplex systems
Communication systems which provide only one-way communication.

Subscriber
A user who pays subscription charges for using a mobile communications
system.

Transceiver
A device capable of simultaneously transmitting and receiving radio signals.
A Cellular System
Examples of wireless communication systems
Paging systems
Communication systems.
Send brief messages to subscriber.
Numeric message.
Alphanumeric message.
Voice message.
The issued message is called a page.
The paging system transmits the page throughout the service
area using base station.
Simple paging system may cover a limited range of 2 to 5 km.
Wide area paging systems can provide worldwide coverage.
Paging receivers are simple and inexpensive whereas the
transmission systems is quite sophisticated.

Paging systems

Wide area paging systems consist of:
A network of telephone lines.
Many base station transmitters.
Large radio towers.
Broadcast a page from each base station
simultaneously. (This is called simulcasting).

Simulcast transmitters may be located within
the same service area or in different cities or
countries.
Paging systems

A wide area Paging system

Cordless telephone systems
Full duplex communication systems.

Use radio to connect a portable handset to a dedicated base station which
is then connected to a dedicated telephone line with specific telephone
number on PSTN.

Provide the user with limited range and mobility.

Can not maintain a call if the user travels outside the range of the base
station.

First generation:
Manufactured in the 1980s.
Can cover distance of a few tens of meters.
For in-home use.

Second generation:
Have recently been introduced.
Allow subscribers to user their handset at many outdoor locations within urban centers.
Sometimes combined with paging receivers.

Cordless telephone systems
A Cordless telephone system
Cellular telephone systems
Provides a wireless connection to the PSTN for any user location
within the radio range of the system.

Accommodate a large number of users over a large geographic area
within a limited frequency spectrum.

Provide high quality service that is comparable to that of the
landline telephone systems.

Can achieve high capacity by limiting the coverage of each base
station transmitter to a small geographic area called a cell.

The same radio channels may be reused by another base station
located some distance away.

A sophisticated switching technique called handoff enables a call to
proceed uninterrupted when the user moves from one cell to
another.
A basic cellular system consists of
Mobile stations (MS).
Base stations (BS).
Mobile Switching Center (MSC) or Mobile Telephone Switching Office
(MTSO).

Mobile station
Contains a transceiver, an antenna, and control circuitry.
Mounted in a vehicle or used as a portable hand-held unit.

Base station
Consists of several transmitters and receivers.
Handles full duplex communications simultaneously.
Have tower that support several transmitting and receiving antennas.
Serves as a bridge between all mobile users in the cell.
Connects the simultaneous mobile calls via telephone lines or
microwave links to the MSC.
A Cellular telephone system. The towers represent base stations which
provide radio access between mobile users and
the mobile switching center (MSC)
Traditional Cellular Networks
MSC or MTSO
It is responsible for connecting all mobiles to the PSTN.
Coordinates the activities of all of the base stations.
A typical MSC handles 100,000 cellular subscribers and 5000 simultaneous conversations at a
time.
Accommodates all billing and system maintenance functions.
In large cities, several MSCs are used by a single carrier.

Communications between the base station and the mobiles is defined by a
standard Common Air Interface (CAI) that specifies 4 different channels.

Forward Voice Channels (FVC)
The channels used for voice transmission from the base station to mobiles.

Reverse Voice Channels (RVC)
The channels used for voice transmission from mobiles to the base station.

Forward Control Channels (FCC) and Reverse Control Channels (RCC)
The two channels responsible for initiating mobile calls.

Control Channels are only involved in setting up a call and moving it to an unused
voice channel.
Control channels are often called Setup Channels.
How a cellular telephone call is made
When a cellular phone is turned on, but is not yet engaged in a call.
It scans the group of FCCs.
Determines the one with strongest signal.
Monitors that control channel until the signal drops below a usable level.
It again scans the control channels in search of the strongest BS signal.

Control channels make up about 5% of the total number of channels
available in the system.
The other 95% are dedicated to voice and data traffic.

When a telephone call is placed to a mobile user.
MSC dispatches the request to all base stations in the cellular system.

The Mobile Identification Number (MIN), which is the subscribers
telephone number is broadcast as a paging message over all of the FCCs
throughout the cellular system.

Figures 1.1 and 1.2 depicts the timing diagram of how a call to or from
mobile user.

Station Class Mark
The SCM (Station Class Mark) is a 4 bit number which holds
three different pieces of information.

The cellular telephone transmits this information (and more) to
the cell tower.
Bit 1 of the SCM tells the cell tower whether your cell phone uses the older
666 channel cellular system, or the newer 832 channel cellular system.
The expansion to 832 channels occurred in 1988.
Bit 2 tells the cellular system whether your cellular telephone is a mobile unit
or a voice activated cellular telephone.
Bit 3 and 4 tell the cell tower what power your cellular telephone should be
transmitting.
Bit 1:
0 == 666 channels
1 == 832 channels
Bit 2:
0 == Mobile cellular telephone
1 == Voice activated cellular telephone
Bit 3/4:
00 == 3.0 watts (Mobiles)
01 == 1.2 watts (Transportables)
10 == 0.6 watts (Portables)
11 == Reserved for future use

Timing diagram illustrated how a call to a mobile user initiated by a landline subscriber is
established
M
S
C

Receives call
from PSTN.
Sends the
requested MIN
to all BSs.
Verifies that the
mobile has a valid
MIN&ESN.
Requests BS to
move mobile to
unused voice
channel pair.
Connects the
mobile with
the calling
party on the
PSTN.
B
S

F
C
C

Transmits page
MIN for
specified user.
Transmits data
message for
mobile to move
to specific VC.
R
C
C

Receives
MIN,ESN, SCM
&passes to MSC.
F
V
C

Begin voice
transmission.
R
V
C

Begin voice
reception.
M
o
b
i
l
e

F
C
C

Receives page
&matches the
MIN with its
own MIN.
Receives data
message to
move to
specified VC.
R
C
C

Acknowledges
receipt of MIN.
Sends ESN
&SCM.
F
V
C

Begin voice
reception.
R
V
C

Begin voice
transmission.
time
M
S
C

Receives call
initiation request
from BS. Verifies
that the mobile
has a valid MIN&
ESN.
Instructs FCC of
originating BS to
move mobile to a
pair of voice
channels.
Connects the
mobile with
the called
party on the
PSTN.
B
S

F
C
C

Page for called mobile,
instructing the mobile to
move to VC.
R
C
C
Receives call initiation
request and MIN, ESN,
SCM.
F
V
C

Begin voice
transmission.
R
V
C

Begin voice
reception.
M
o
b
i
l
e

F
C
C

Receives page and
matches the MIN with its
own MIN. receives
instruction to move to VC.
R
C
C

Sends call initiation
request along with
subscribe MIN and
number of called party.
F
V
C

Begin voice
reception.
R
V
C

Begin voice
transmission.
Timing diagram illustrated how a call initiated by a mobile is established
time
Comparison of mobile communication system (Mobile Station)
Service Coverage
range
Required
infrastructure
complexity Hardware
cost
Carrier
frequency
functionality
TV
remote
control
Low Low Low Low Infrared Transmitter
Garage
door
opener
Low Low Low Low < 100
MHz
Transmitter
Paging
system
High High Low Low <1 GHz Receiver
Cordless
phone
Low Low Moderate Low <1 GHz Transceiver
Cellular
phone
High High High Moderate <2 GHz Transceiver
Comparison of mobile communication system (Base Station)
Service Coverage
range
Required
infrastructure
Complexity Hardware
cost
Carrier
frequency
functionality
TV remote
Control
Low Low Low Low Infrared Receiver
Garage
door
opener
Low Low Low Low <100 MHz Receiver
Paging
system
High High High High <1 GHz Transmitter
Cordless
phone
Low Low Low Moderate <1 GHz Transceiver
Cellular
phone
High High High High <2 GHz Transceiver
Modern Wireless Communication Systems
Second generation (2G) cellular networks

cdmaONE, IS-95, ANSI J-STD-
008
GSM, DCS-1900, ANSI J-STD-
007
NADC, IS-54/IS-136, ANSI J-STD-
011, PDC
Uplink
frequencies
824-849 MHz
1850-1910 MHz (US PCS)
890-915 MHz (Europe) 1850-
1910 MHz (US PCS)
800 MHz, 1500 MHz, (Japan)
1850-1910 MHz (US PCS)
Downlink
Frequencies
869-894 MHz (US Cellular)
1930-1990 MHz (US PCS)
935-960 MHz (Europe)
1930-1990 MHz (US PCS)
869-894 MHz (US Cellular)
1930-1990 MHz (US PCS)
800 MHz, 1500 MHz (Japan)
Duplexing FDD FDD FDD
Multiple access
technology
CDMA TDMA TDMA
Modulation BPSK with quadrature
spreading
GMSK with BT=0.3 t/4 DQPSK
Carrier
separation
1.25 MHz 200 kHz 30 kHz (IS-136)
Channel data
rate
1.2288 Mchips/sec 270.833 kbps (48.6 kbps for IS-136)
(42 kbps for PDC)
Voice channel
per carrier
64 8 3
Speech coding Code excited linear prediction
(CELP) @ 13 kbps, Enhanced
variable rate codec (EVRC) @ 8
kbps
Residual pulse excited long
term prediction (RPE-LTP) @
13 kbps
Vector sum Excited Linear
Predictive Coder (VSELP) @ 7.95
kbps
Current and emerging 2.5G and 3G data communication standards
Wireless data
technologies
Channel
BW
Duplex Infra-
structure
change
Requires
new
spectrum
Requires new handsets
HSCSD
(High Speed
Circuit
Switched
Data)
200 kHz FDD Requires
software
upgrade
at base
station
No Yes
New HSCSD handsets provide
57.6 kbps on HSCSD networks,
and 9.6 kbps on GSM networks
with dual mode phones. GSM
only phones will not work in
HSCSD networks.
GPRS
(General
Packet Radio
Service)
new
packet
overlay
including
routers
and
gateways
No Yes
New GPRS handsets work on
GPRS networks at 171.2 kbps, 9.6
kbps on GSM networks with dual
mode phones. GSM only phone
will not work in GPRS networks.
Current and emerging 2.5G and 3G data communication standards (2)
Wireless
data
technologies
Channel
BW
Duplex Infra-
structure
change
Requires
new
spectrum
EDGE
(Enhanced
Data Rates
for GSM
Evolution)
new
transceiver
at base
station.
Also,
software
upgrades
to the
base
station
controller
and base
station.
No Yes
New handsets work on EDGE
networks at 384 kbps, GPRS
networks at 144 kbps, and
GSM networks at 9.6 kbps with
tri-mode phones.
GSM and GPRS only phones
will not work in EDGE
networks.
Wireless data
technologies
Channel
BW
Duplex Infra-
structure
change
Requires
new
spectrum
W-CDMA 5 MHz FDD Requires
completely
new base
station.
Yes Yes
New W-CDMA handsets will
work on W-CDMA at 2 Mbps,
EDGE networks at 384 kbps,
GPRS networks at 144 kbps,
GSM networks at 9.6 kbps.
Older handsets will not work in
W-CDMA.
IS-95B 1.25
MHz
FDD Requires
new
software
in base
station
controller.
No Yes
New handsets will work on IS-
95B at 64 kbps and IS-95A at
14.4 kbps. Older handsets can
work in IS-95B at 14.4 kbps.
Wireless data
technologies
Channel
BW
Duplex Infra-structure
change
Requires
new
spectrum
cdma2000
1XRTT
(Radio
Transmission
Technology)
1.25
MHz
FDD Requires new
software in
backbone and new
channel cards at
base station. Also
need to build a
new packet
service node.
No Yes
New handsets will
work on 1XRTT at 144
kbps, IS-95B at 64 kbps,
IS-95A at 14.4 kbps.
Older handsets can
work in 1XRTT but at
lower speeds.
Cdma2000
1XEV (DO
and DV)
(Evolution,
Data Only),
(Evolution
Data and
Voice)
1.25
MHz
FDD Requires software
and digital card
upgrade on 1XRTT
networks.
No Yes
New handsets will
work on 1XEV at 2.4
Mbps, 1XRTT at 144
kbps, IS-95B at 64 kbps,
IS-95A at 14.4 kbps,
older handsets can
work in 1XEV but at
lower speeds.
Current and emerging 2.5G and 3G data communication
standards (5)
Wireless data
technologies
Channel
BW
Duplex Infra-structure
change
Requires
new
spectrum
cdma2000
3XRTT
3.75
MHz
FDD Requires
backbone
modifications
and new
channel cards
at base
station.
Maybe Yes
New handsets will work
on 95A at 14.4 kbps, 95B
at 64 kbps, 1XRTT at 144
kbps, 3XRTT at 2 Mbps.
Older handsets can work
in 3X but at lower speeds.
Various upgrade paths for 2G technologies
Leading IMT-2000 candidate standards
Air interface Mode of Operation Duplexing Method Key Features
Cdma2000
US TIA
TR45.5
Multi-carrier and
Direct spreading
DS-CDMA at
N1.2288 Mcps
With N=1,3,6,9,12
FDD and TDD Modes Backward
compatibility with IS-
95A and IS-95B.
Downlink can be
implemented using
either Multi-carrier
or Direct Spreading.
Uplink can support a
simultaneous
combination of
multi-carrier or
Direct spreading.
Auxiliary carriers to
help with downlink
channel estimation
in forward link
beam-forming.
Abbreviations
ANSI: American National Standards Institute.
DECT: Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications.
ETSI: European Telecommunications Standards Institute.
FOMA: Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access.
GPRS: General packet radio service.
IMT2000: International Mobile Telecommunications 2000.
UWC: Universal Wireless Communications.
TIA: Telecommunications Industry Association.
UMTS: Universal Mobile Telecommunications System.
UTRA: UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access.
WIMS: Wireless Integrated services digital network
Multimedia Services.

Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
Provides simultaneous radio transmission channels for
the users and the base station.

At the base station separate transmit and receive
antennas are used to accommodate the two separate
channels.

At the subscriber unit a single antenna is used for both
transmission to and reception from the base station.
A device called duplexer is used to enable the same
antenna to a be used for simultaneous transmission and
reception.

It is necessary to separate the transmit and receive
frequencies
The duplexer can provide sufficient isolation while being
inexpensively manufactured.

FDD is used exclusively in analog mobile radio systems.
Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
TDD uses the fact that it is possible to share a single
radio channel in time
a portion of the time is used to transmit from the base
station to the mobile.
The remaining time is used to transmit from the mobile to
the base station.

If the data transmission rate of the channel is much
greater than the end-users data rate.
it is possible to store information bursts
provide the appearance of full duplex operation to a user,
even though there are not two simultaneous radio
transmissions at any instant of time.

TDD is only possible with digital transmission formats
and digital modulation, and is very sensitive to timing .
Leading IMT-2000 candidate standard (cont.)
Air interface Mode of Operation Duplexing
Method
Key Features
UTRA (UMTS
Terrestrial Radio
Access) ETSI SMG2
DS-CDMA at rates
of N0.960 Mcps
With N=4, 8, 16
FDD and TDD
Modes
Wideband DS-CDMA
system.

Backward compatibility
with GSM/DCS1900.
Up to 2.048 Mbps on
downlink in FDD Mode.

Minimum forward
channel bandwidth of 5
GHz.

W-CDMA/NA
(Wideband CDMA
North America)
USA T1P1-ATIS
W-CDMA/Japan
ARIB
CDMA II
South Korea TTA
WIMS/W-CDMA
USA
TIA TR46.1
Leading IMT-2000 candidate standard (cont.)
Air interface Mode of
Operation
Duplexing
Method
Key Features
CDMA I
South Korea TTA
DS-CDMA at
N0.9216 Mcps
With N= 1,4,16
FDD and
TDD
Modes
Up to 512 kbps per spreading code,
code aggregation up to 2.048 Mbps.
UWC-136
(Universal
Wireless
Communications
Consortium)
USA TIA TR45.3
TDMA Up to
722.2 kbps
(Outdoor/
vehicular) Up to
5.2 Mbps
(indoor office)
FDD
(outdoor/
Vehicular)
TDD
(indoor
office)
Backward compatibility and upgrade
path for both IS-136 and GSM.
Fits into existing IS-136 and GSM.
Explicit plans to support adaptive
antenna technology.
TD-SCDMA
China Academy
of Telecomm.
Technology
(CATT)
DS-CDMA
1.1136 Mcps
TDD RF channel bit rate up to 2.227 Mbps.
Use of smart antenna technology is
fundamental (but not strictly required)
in TDSCMA.
DECT (ETSI
Project (EP)
DECT)
1150-3456 kbps
TDMA
TDD Enhanced version of 2G DECT
technology.
Toward 4G
GSM
(TDMA)
PDC
(TDMA)
iDEN
(TDMA)
IS-136
(TDMA)
IS-95A
(CDMA)
GPRS EDGE
WCDMA
(UMTS)
HSPA
LTE LTE-A
IS-95B
(CDMA)
1X
(CDMA2000)
EV-DO
(CDMA2000)
2G 2.5G
3G
4G
world
Japan
U.S
U.S
U.S
Asia
Long Term Evolution (LTE)
LTE is a preliminary mobile communication standard
formally submitted as a candidate 4G system to ITU-T in
late 2009, and expected to be finalized in 2011.

An attempt to bring 4G technology into 3G spectrum.

LTE challenges other advanced technologies (like WiMAX)
and will try to meet high data rate service demands.

LTE Advanced also introduces multicarrier to be able to use
Ultra Wide Bandwidth (UWB), up to 100 MHz of spectrum
supporting very high data rates.

LTE system advantages
Wide deployment
Mobility Support

Motivation for LTE

Need for higher data rates and greater spectral efficiency
Can be achieved with High Speed Downlink Packet Access
(HSDPA) and High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA).
New air interface defined by LTE 3GPP.

Need for Packet Switched optimized system.
Evolve UMTS toward Packet only system.

Need for high quality of services.
Use of licensed frequencies to guarantee quality of services.
Always on-experience (reduce control plane latency significantly).
Reduce round trip.

Need for cheaper infrastructure.
Simplify architecture reduce number of network elements.
LTE performance requirements
Channel Bandwidth
Scalable system bandwidth in LTE-Advanced
exceeding 20 MHz, Up to 100 MHz.
also LTE supports 1.25 MHz, 5 MHz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz
and 20 MHz.

LTE utilizes hybrid OFDMA and SC-FDMA.
LTE radio access should be based on OFDMA in the
downlink (DL).
and Single-Carrier Frequency Division Multiple
Access (SC-FDMA) in the uplink (UL).

Data rate
Instantaneous downlink peak data rate of 100 Mbps in a 20 MHz Downlink
spectrum (i.e 5 bps/Hz).

Instantaneous uplink peak data rate of 50 Mbps in a 20 MHz uplink spectrum
(i.e 2.5 bps/Hz).

LTE-Advanced provides almost 3.3 Gbit peak download rates per sector of the
base station under ideal conditions with utilizing 8x8 MIMO and 100 MHz
bandwidth.

Cell range.
5 km optimal size.
30 km with reasonable performance.
100 km with acceptable performance.

Cell capacity
Up to 200 active users per cell. (5 MHz)
Mobility
Optimised performance (0-15 km/h),
high performance (15-120 km/h),
service maintained (120-350 km/h).

Latency
User Plane Latency < 5 ms.
Control Plane Latency < 50 ms.

Improved spectrum efficiency.

Improved broadcasting.

Co-existence with legacy standards.
Migration to LTE

PCF: packet Control Function
BSC: Base station Controller
MME: mobile management entity
PCU: packet control unit
PDN: packet Data Network
PDSN:Packet Data Serving node
SGSN: Serving GPRS Support Node
HRPD: High Rate Packet Data

HSGW: HRPD Serving Gateway
RNC: Radio Network Controller
HLR: Home Location Register
HSS: Home Subscriber Server
PCRF
USN: unified service node
UGW: unified gateway

Definitions
Mobile Management Entity (MME) is a processing element within the UMTS LTE
can be used to find a route, then transfer communication connections to WiMAX
wireless devices.

Packet Control Unit (PCU) is a late addition to the GSM standard. It performs some
of the processing tasks of the BSC, but for packet data. The allocation of channels
between voice and data is controlled by the base station, but once a channel is
allocated to the PCU, the PCU takes full control over that channel.

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) is responsible for the delivery of data packets
from and to the mobile stations within its geographical service area.

Home Location Register / Home Subscriber Server (HLR / HSS) provides a
comprehensive, centralized subscriber database management solution across
current and next-generation wireless technologies.

Unified Service Node (USN) and Unified GateWay (UGW) developed by Huawei
and had been used by a mature core network solution to build logical nodes for
different access networks.

WiMAX
WiMAX stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access.

WiMAX is a wireless digital communications system, also known as IEEE
802.16.

The availability of 802.16e and 802.16d as two different and incompatible
iterations of the WiMAX standards has in some cases added confusion to the
operators investment decisions.
802.16d has often been considered the (fixed standard).
and 802.16e as the (mobile standard).
802.16e supports the full spectrum of fixed, nomadic, portable and mobile solutions.

WiMAX can provide Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) up to
30 miles (50 km) for fixed stations, and
3- 10 miles (5 - 15 km) for mobile stations.

WiMAX operates on both licensed and non-licensed frequencies.

Soon, WiMAX will be a very well recognized term to describe wireless Internet
access throughout the world.

WiMAX system
Mobile WiMAX
In February 2002, the South Korea allocated 100 MHz of electromagnetic
spectrum in the 2.32.4 GHz band.

In late 2004 WiBro Phase 1 was standardized by the TTA of Korea.

In late 2005 ITU reflected WiBro as IEEE 802.16e (mobile WiMAX).

Mobile WiMAX is a broadband wireless solution that enables convergence
of mobile and fixed broadband networks through a common wide area.

The Mobile WiMAX Air Interface adopts Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiple Access (OFDMA) for improved multi-path performance in non-
line-of-sight environments.

Scalable OFDMA (SOFDMA) is introduced in the IEEE 802.16e Amendment
to support scalable channel bandwidths from 1.25 to 20 MHz.
DVB-T
ATSC : Advanced Television Systems Committee.
DMB-T/H: Digital Multimedia Broadcast-Terrestrial/Handheld.
DVB-T : Digital Video Broadcasting- Terrestrial.
ISDB-T : Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting-Terrestrial.
ISDB-T : Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting Terrestrial.
DVB-T (2)
World mobile phone usage
DVB-S
DSS : Digital Satellite Service.
ISDB-S : Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting-Satellite.
Assignment 1
Aspects of Research
Services and Features of Cellular System.
The Architecture of Cellular System.
Radio Interface of Cellular System.
System Channel Types.
Frame Structure of Cellular System.
Signal Processing in Cellular System.
Mobile phone standards
3GPP Family
GSM (2G)
GPRS
CSD
HSCSD
EDGE
(evolutionary 3G, Pre
3G)
EDGE (EGPRS)
Evolved
EDGE (EGPRS2B)
UMTS/UTRA
(revolutionary 3G)
UTRA-FDD (W-
CDMA)
FOMA
UTRA-TDD
UTRA-TDD HCR
(TD-CDMA)
UTRA-TDD LCR
(TD-SCDMA)
HSPA
HSDPA
HSUPA
DC-HSDPA
3GPP
Rel.7 and 8 (Pre-
4G)
Evolved
HSPA (HSPA+; Rel.
7)
Long Term
Evolution (Rel. 8)
LTE Advanced (4G)
Other
GAN (UMA)
3GPP2 Family
cdmaOne (2G)
CDMA2000 (evolut
ionary 3G)
EV-DO
UMB (Pre-4G)
AMPS Family
AMPS (1G)
TACS / ETACS
D-AMPS (2G)
Other Technologies
Pre Cellular
PTT
MTS
IMTS
AMTS
OLT
MTD
Autotel / PALM
ARP
1G
NMT
Hicap
CDPD
Mobitex
DataTAC
2G
iDEN
PDC
CSD
PHS
WiDEN
Pre-4G
iBurst
HIPERMAN
Flash-OFDM
WiMAX
WiBAS (LMDS)
WiBro
Channel Access
Methods
FDMA
OFDMA
TDMA
STDMA
SSMA
CDMA
SDMA

Chapter Two
The Cellular Concept and
System Design Fundamentals
The Cellular concept
Some of the important concepts will be
discussed in detail:
a) Frequency reuse.
b) Channel assignment.
c) Handoff.
d) Interference and system capacity.
e) Tracking and Grade of Service (GoS)
f) Improving coverage and capacity.

Frequency reuse
Each cellular BS is allocated a group of radio channels to be used
within a small geographic area called a Cell.

BSs in adjacent cells are assigned channel groups which contain
completely different channels than neighbouring cells.

The BS antennas are designed to achieve the desired coverage
within the particular cell.

By limiting the coverage area to within the boundaries of a cell
The same group of channels may be used to cover different cells.
Those cells are separated from one another by distances large enough to
keep interference levels within tolerable limits.

The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for
all of the cellular BSs within a system is called frequency reuse or
frequency planning.
Frequency reuse (2)
Cells labelled with the
same letter use the same
set of frequencies.

A cell cluster is outlined
in bold and replicated
over the coverage area.

In this figure the cluster
size (N) is equal to 7.

The frequency reuse is
factor is (1/7).
Fig. 2.1 Cellular frequency reuse concept
Frequency reuse (3)
The hexagonal cell shape is a conceptual and the simplistic model of
the radio coverage for each BS.
It permits easy and manageable analysis of a cellular system.

The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the footprint and is
determined from:
Field measurement or
propagation prediction models.

The real footprint is amorphous in nature.
A regular cell shape is needed for systematic system design and
adaptation for future growth.

Choosing a circle to represent the coverage area of a BS
Adjacent circles can not be overlapped without leaving gaps or
creating overlapping regions.

A cell must be designed to serve the weakest mobiles within the
footprint.
These are typically located at the edge of the cell.

Frequency reuse (4)
There are three sensible choices a
square, an equilateral triangle, and a
hexagon.
For a given distance between the
centre of a polygon and its farthest
perimeter points, hexagon has the
largest area of the three.

By using the hexagon geometry,
the fewest number of cells can cover a
geographic region.
The hexagon closely approximates a
circular radiation pattern which would
occur for an omni-directional BS
antenna and free space propagation.

The actual cellular footprint is
determined by the contour in which a
given transmitter serves the mobiles
successfully.

Fig. 2.2 Cellular BS footprint
Frequency reuse (5)
When using hexagons to model coverage
areas BS transmitters are depicted as either
being in the
centre of the cell (centre-excited cells) or
on three of the six cell vertices (edge-excited
cells).

Omni-directional antennas are used in
centre-excited cells.

Sectored directional antennas are used in
corner excited cells.
Fig. 2.3 centre-excited cells
Fig. 2.4 corner excited cells
Frequency reuse (6)
An omni-directional antenna is
an antenna which radiates power
uniformly in one plane, with the
radiated power decreasing with
elevation angle above or below the
plane, dropping to zero on the
antenna's axis. This radiation pattern is
often described as "donut shaped".

A sector antenna is a type
of directional microwave antenna with
a sector-shaped radiation pattern. The
largest use of these antennas is as
antennas for cell phone base-station
sites. They are also used for other
types of mobile communications, for
example in WiFi networks. They are
used for limited-range distances of
around 4 to 5 km.

Fig. 2.5 Omni-directional radiation pattern
Fig. 2.6 A directional antenna radiation pattern
Frequency Reuse (7)
A cellular system has a total of S duplex channels.

Each cell is allocated a group of k channels (k < S).

The S channels are divided among N cells into unique and disjoint channel
groups.
Each group has the same number of channels.

The total number of available radio channels can be expressed as
S=kN (2.1)

The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available frequencies
is called a cluster.

If cluster is replicated M times within the system
The total number of duplex channels C can be used as a measure of capacity and is
given by
C = MkN = MS (2.2)

The capacity of a cellular system is directly proportional to the number of
times a cluster is replicated in a fixed service area.

Frequency Reuse (8)
The factor N is called the cluster size.
N is typically equal to 4, 7, or 12.

If N is reduced while the cell size is kept constant
More clusters are required to cover a given area.
More capacity (a larger value of C) is achieved.

A large cluster size N indicates that the ratio between the cell radius and the
distance between co-channel cells is large.

A small cluster size N indicates that co-channel are located much closer
together.

The value for N is a function of how much interference a mobile or base
station can tolerate while maintaining a sufficient quality of communications.

Form a design viewpoint:
The smallest possible value of N is desirable in order to maximize capacity over a given
coverage area.

The hexagonal geometry has exactly 6 equidistant neighbours.
The lines joining the centers of any cell and each of its neighbour are separated by multiplies
of 60.
Frequency Reuse (9)
In order to connect without gaps
between adjacent cells
The geometry of hexagons is such
that the number of cells per cluster,
can have values which satisfy:
N = i
2
+ij+j
2
(2.3)

Where i and j are non-negative integers

To find the nearst co-channel
neighbour cell one must do the
following:
1. Move i cells along any chain of
hexagons.
2. Then turn 60 counter-clockwise.
3. Move j cells.

As illustrated in the figure 2.7
i = 3, and j = 2
N = 9+6+4
= 19
Fig. 2.7 Method of locating co-channel
cells in a cellular system
Frequency Reuse (10)
Fig. 2.8 Cellular Channels Allocation
Example
If a total of 33 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular FDD cellular telephone
system which uses two 25 kHz simplex channels to provide full duplex voice and
control channels, compute the number of channels available per cell if a system
uses
(a) 4 cell reuse, (b) 7 cell reuse (c) 12 cell reuse.
If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated to control channels, determine an
equitable distribution of control channels and voice channels in each cell for each
of the three systems.

Solution
Given total bandwidth = 33 MHz
Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz 2 simplex channels = 50 kHz/duplex channel
Total available channels = 33,000/50 = 660 channels
(a) For N = 4,
Total number of channels available per cell = 660/4 = 165 channels.
(b) For N=7,
Total number of channels available per cell = 660/7 ~ 95 channels.
(c) For N=12,
Total number of channels available per cell = 660/12 = 55 channels.

Solution (cont.)

A 1 MHz spectrum for control channels implies that there are
1000/50 = 20 control channels out of the 660 channels available.
To evenly distribute the control and voice channels.
Simply allocate the same number of channels in each cell
wherever possible.
Here 660 channels must be evenly distributed to each cell within
the cluster.
In practice only the 640 voice channels would be allocated, since
the control channels are allocated separately as 1 per cell.

(a) For N = 4,
1 cell with 5 control channels and 160 voice channels.
In practice, however each cell only needs a single control channel.
Thus 1 control channel and 160 voice channels would be assigned to
each cell.

(b) For N = 7,
4 cells with 3 control channels and 92 voice channels (12 CCs), (368 VCs)
1 cell with 2 control channels and 92 voice channels.(02 CCs), (092 VCs).
In practice, however each cell would have 1 control channel,
4 cells would have 91 voice channels (364 VCs), and
3 cells would have 92 voice channels (276 VCs).

(c) For N=12,
4 cells with 1 control channel and 54 voice channels (04 CCs), (216 VCs)
In practice, however each cell would have 1 control channel,
8 cells would have 53 voice channels (424 VCs), and
4 cells would have 54 voice channels (216 VCs).

Channel Assignment Strategies
Channel assignment strategies can be classified as either
fixed or
dynamic.

The choice of channel assignment strategy impacts the performance of
the system.
How calls are managed when a mobile user is handed off from one cell to
another.

In a fixed channel assignment strategy
Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels.
Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused channels in
that particular cell.

If all the channels in that cell are occupied
The call is blocked
The subscriber does not receive service.

Several variations of the fixed assignment strategy exist.

In one approach called borrowing strategy
A cell is allowed to borrow channels from a neighbouring cell if all of its own
channels are already occupied.

Channel Assignment Strategies (2)
In a dynamic channel assignment strategy.
Voice channels are not allocated to different cells
permanently.

Instead each time a cell request is made the serving BS
requests a channel from the MSC.

The switch then allocates a channel to the requested
cell following an algorithm that takes into account:
The likelihood of future blocking within the cell.
The frequency of use of the candidate channel.
The reuse distance of the channel and other cost functions.

MSC allocates a given frequency if that frequency is not
presently in use in the cell or any other cell which falls
within the minimum restricted distance of frequency
reuse to avoid co-channel interference.

Channel Assignment Strategies (3)
Dynamic channel assignment reduce the likelihood of
blocking.
All available channels in a market are accessible to all of
the cells.

Dynamic channel assignment strategies require MSC to
collect real time data on channel occupancy, traffic
distribution, and Radio Signal Strength Indications
(RSSI) of all channels on a continuous basis.
This increases the storage and computational load on the
system.
But provides the advantage of
Increased channel utilization.
Decreased probability of a blocked call.

Handoff Strategies
When a mobile moves into a different cell while a
conversation is in progress.
MSC automatically transfers the call to a new channel belonging
to the new BS.

This handoff operation not only involves identifying a new
BS.
It requires that the voice and control signals be allocated to
channels associated with the new BS.

Many handoff prioritize handoff requests over call initiation
requests when allocating unused channels in a cell site.

Handoffs must be performed successfully and as
infrequently as possible and be imperceptible to the users.

System designer must specify an optimum signal level at
which to initiate a handoff.

Handoff Strategies (2)
Once a particular signal level is specified as the minimum
usable signal for acceptable voice quality at the BS receiver
Normally taken as between -90 dBm and -100 dBm.
A slightly stronger signal level is used as a threshold at which a handoff is
made.

The threshold is given by
A = P
r handoff
- P
r minimum usable

If A is too large
Unnecessary handoffs which burden the MSC may occur.

If A is too small
There may be insufficient time to complete a handoff before a call is lost
due to weak signal conditions.

Therefore A is chosen carefully to meet these conflicting
requirements.

The figure demonstrates two cases
of handoff situation.

In case (a) where a handoff is not
made
The signal drops below the minimum
acceptable level to keep the channel
active.
This dropped call event can happen
when there is an excessive delay by
the MSC in assigning a handoff, or
When the threshold A is set too small
for the handoff time in the system.

Excessive delays may occur
During high traffic conditions due to
computational loading at the MSC, or
Due to the fact to that no channels are
available on any of the nearby BSs.
Thus forcing the MSC to wait until a
channel in a nearby cell becomes free.
Fig. 2.9 Illustration of handoff scenario at
cell boundary

Illustration of handoff scenario at cell boundary

In deciding when to handoff:
It is important to ensure that the drop in the measured
signal level is not due to momentary fading and that the
mobile is actually moving away from the serving BS.

In order to ensure this
BS monitors the signal level for a certain period of time
before a hand-off is initiated.
This running average measurement of signal strength
should be optimized.

Unnecessary handoffs are avoided
Ensuring that necessary handoffs are completed before a
call is terminated due to poor signal level.

The length of time needed to decide if a handoff is necessary
depends on the speed at which the vehicle is moving.

If the slope of the short-term average received signal level in a
given time interval is steep.
The handoff should be made quickly.

Information about the vehicle speed
which can be useful in handoff decisions.
Can also be computed from the statistics of the received short-term
fading signal at the BS.

The time over which a call may be maintained within a cell without
handoff is called the dwell time.

The dwell time of a particular user is governed by a number of
factors which include:
Propagation
Interference
Distance between the subscriber and the BS.
In 1G analog cellular systems
Signal strength measurements are made by the base stations.
Supervised by the MSC.

Each BS constantly monitors the signal strengths of all of its reverse
voice channels.
To determine the relative location of each mobile user with respect to
the BS tower.

In addition to measuring the RSSI of calls in progress within the cell
A spare receiver in each BS called the locator receiver is used to
determine signal strengths of mobile users which are in neighbouring
cells.

The locator receiver is controlled by the MSC and is used to monitor
the signal strength of users in neighbouring cells which appear to
be in need of handoff and reports all RSSI values to the MSC.

Based on the locator receiver signal strength information from each
BS
The MSC decides if a handoff is necessary or not.
In 2G systems that use digital TDMA technology.
Handoff decisions are mobile assisted.

In mobile assisted handoff (MAHO)
Every mobile station measures the received power from surrounding
BSs and continually reports the results of these measurements to the
serving BS.

A handoff is initiated when the power received from the BS of a
neighbouring cell begins to exceed the power received from the
current BS by certain level or for a certain period of time.

The MAHO method enables the call to be handed over between BSs
at a much faster rate than in 1G analog systems since the handoff
measurements are made by each mobile.
MSC no longer constantly monitors signal strengths.

MAHO is particularly suited for microcellular environments where
handoffs are more frequent.
During the course of a call If a mobile moves from one
cellular system to a different cellular system controlled by a
different MSC.
An intersystem handoff becomes necessary.

An MSC engages in an intersystem handoff when
A mobile signal becomes weak in a given cell and
The MSC cannot find another cell within its system to which it
can transfer the call in progress.

There are many issues that must be addressed when
implementing an intersystem handoff.
A local call may become a long-distance call as the mobile
moves out of its home system and becomes roamer in a
neighbouring system.
Also compatibility between the two MSCs must be determined
before implementing an intersystem handoff.
Different systems have different policies and methods for
managing handoff requests.

Some systems handle handoff requests in the same
way they handle originating calls
In such systems the probability that a handoff request will
not be served by a new BS is equal to the blocking
probability of incoming calls.

From the users point of view:
Having a call abruptly terminated while in the middle of a
conversation is more annoying than being blocked
occasionally on a new call attempt.

To improve QoS as perceived by the users
various methods have been devised to prioritize handoff
requests over call initiation requests when allocating voice
channels.

Prioritizing Handoffs

One method for giving priority to handoffs is called the
guard channel concept.
A fraction of the total available channels in a cell is
reserved exclusively for handoff requests from ongoing
calls.

Disadvantage
Reducing the total carried traffic
As fewer channels are allocated to originating calls.

Guard channels offer efficient spectrum utilization
when Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA) strategies
are used.
Because DCA minimize the number of required guard
channels by efficient demand based allocation.

Prioritizing Handoffs (2)

Queuing of handoff requests is another method to decrease
the probability of forced termination of a call due to lack of
available channels.

There is trade-off between the decrease in probability of
forced termination and total carried traffic.

Queuing of handoffs is possible
due to the fact that there is a finite time interval between the
time the received signal level drops below the handoff threshold
and the time the call is terminated due to insufficient signal level.

The delay time and size of the queue is determined from the
traffic pattern of the particular service area.

It should be noted that queuing does not guarantee a zero
probability of forced termination.
Large delays will cause the received signal level to drop below the
minimum required level to maintain communication and hence
lead to forced termination.
Practical handoff considerations
In practical cellular systems several problems arise when
attempting to design for a wide range of mobile velocities.

High speed vehicles pass through the coverage region of a
cell within a matter of seconds.
Whereas pedestrian users may never need a handoff during a
call.

Particularly with the addition of microcells to provide
capacity.
MSC can quickly become burdened if high speed users are
constantly being passed between very small cells.

Several schemes have been devised to handle the
simultaneous traffic of high speed and low speed users
while minimizing the handoff intervention from MSC.
Practical handoff considerations (2)
Another practical limitation is the ability to obtain new cell
sites.

Zoning laws, ordinances, and other nontechnical barriers
often make it more attractive for a cellular provider to
install additional channels and BSs at the same physical
location of an existing cell rather than find new site
locations.

By using different antenna heights often on the same
building or tower and different power levels.

It is possible to provide large and small cells which are co-
located at a single location.

This technique is called the umbrella cell approach and is
used to provide large area coverage to high speed users
while providing small area coverage to users travelling at
low speeds.
Practical handoff
considerations (3)
Figure 2.10 illustrates an umbrella cell
which is co-located with some smaller
microcells.

The umbrella cell approach ensures
that the number of handoffs is
minimized for high speed users and
provides additional microcell channels
for pedestrian users.

The speed of each user may be
estimated by the BS or MSC by
evaluating how rapidly the short-term
average signal strength on the RVC
changes over time or more
sophisticated algorithm may be used
to evaluated and partition users.

If a high velocity is rapidly decreasing
BS may decide to hand the user into
the co-located microcell without MSC
intervention.
Fig. 2.10 The umbrella cell approach
Another practical handoff problem in microcell systems is known as
cell dragging.

Cell dragging results from pedestrian users that provide a very
strong signal to the BS.

Such a situation occurs in an urban environment when there is a
line of sight (LOS) radio path between the subscriber and the BS.

As the user travels away from the BS at a very slow speed.
The average signal strength does not decay rapidly.

Even when the user has travelled well beyond the designed range
of the cell.
The received signal at the BS may be above the handoff threshold.
Thus handoff may not be made.

Since the user has meanwhile travelled deep within a neighbouring
cell.
This creates potential interference and traffic management problem.
Handoff thresholds and radio coverage parameters must be adjusted
carefully.

In 1G analog cellular systems
The typical time to make a handoff once the signal is
deemed to be below the handoff threshold is about
10 seconds.
This requires that the value for A be on the order of 6
dB to 12 dB.

In new digital cellular systems such as GSM
The mobile assists with the handoff procedure by
determining the best handoff candidates
The handoff once the decision is made typically
requires only 1 or 2 seconds.
Consequently A is usually between 0 dB and 6 dB.

The IS-95 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) spectral
spectrum cellular system provides a unique handoff
capability that can not be provided with other wireless
systems.

Channelized wireless systems that assign different radio
channels during a handoff called a hard handoff.

Spread spectrum mobiles share the same channel in
every cell.
Thus the term handoff does not mean a physical change in the
assigned channel.
Rather that a different BS handles the radio communication task.
By simultaneously evaluating the received signals from a single
subscriber at several neighbouring BSs.
MSC may actually decide which version of the users signal is best at
any moment in time.

The ability to select between the instantaneous received
signals from a variety of BSs is called Soft Handoff.
Interference and system capacity
Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance of
cellular radio systems.

Sources of interference include:
Another mobile in the same cell.
A call in progress in a neighbouring cell.
Other BSs operating in the same frequency band, or
Any noncellular system which inadvertently leaks energy into the
cellular frequency band.

Interference on voice channels causes crosstalk
The subscriber hears interference in the background due to an
undesired transmission.

On control channels
Interference leads to missed and blocked calls due to errors in the
digital signalling.

Interference is more severe in urban areas due to
the greater FR noise floor and
large number of BSs and mobiles.
Interference and system capacity (2)
The two major types of system generated cellular
interference are
Co-channel interference, and
Adjacent channel interference.

Even though interfering signals are often generated
within the cellular system.
They are difficult to control in practice due to random
propagation effects.

Even more difficult to control is interference due to
out-of-band users.
In practice the transmitters from competing cellular
carriers are often a significant source of out-of-band
interference.

Co-channel interference and system capacity
Frequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area there
are several cells that use the same set of frequencies.
These cells are called co-channel cells.
The interference between signals from these cells is called co-
channel interference.

Unlike thermal noise which can be overcome by increasing
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

Co-channel interference cannot be combated by simply
increasing the carrier power of a transmitter.
This is because an increase in carrier transmit power increases
the interference to neighbouring co-channel cells.

To reduce co-channel interference
Co-channel cells must be physically separated by a minimum
distance to provide sufficient isolation due to propagation.

Co-channel interference and system capacity (2)
When the size of each cell is approximately the
same and the BSs transmit the same power.
The co-channel interference ratio is independent of
the transmitted power and becomes a function of
The radius of the cell (R ), and
The distance between centers of the nearset co-channel
cells (D ).

By increasing the ratio of (D/R)
The spatial separation between co-channel cells
relative to the coverage distance of a cell is increased.
Thus interference is reduced from improved isolation
of RF energy from the co-channel cell.

The parameters Q called the co-channel reuse ratio
It is related to the cluster size.
For a hexagonal geometry:

A small value of Q provides larger capacity since the cluster size N is small.

A large value of Q improves the transmission quality due to a smaller level of
co-channel interference.

A trade-off must be made between these two objectives in actual design.

(2.4) 3N
R
D
Q = =
Cluster size
(N )
Co-channel reuse
ratio (Q )
i= 1, j=1 3 3
i=1, j= 2 7 4.58
i= 2, j= 2 12 6
i= 1, j= 3 13 6.24
Co-channel Reuse Ratio for Some Values of N
Six effective interfering cells in tier 1 of cell 1
Relationship between Q and N
N
R
D
Q 3 = =
Let i
o
be the number of co-channel interfering cells.
The signal-to-interference ratio (S/I or SIR) for a mobile receiver which
monitors a forward channel can be expressed as

where S is the desired signal power from the desired BS, and
I
i
is the interference power caused by the i th interfering co-channel cell BS.

Propagation measurements in a mobile radio channel show that the
average received signal strength at any point decays as a power law of the
distance of separation between a transmitter and receiver.

The average received power P
r
at a distance d from the transmitting
antenna is approximated by

Where P
0
is the power received at a close-in reference point in the far region of the
antenna at a small distance d
0
from the transmitting antenna, and n is the path loss
exponent.
(2.5)
0
1
=
=
i
i
i
I
S
I
S
(2.6) or ,
0
0
n
r
d
d
P P
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
( ) (2.7) ) log (10 - dBm) ( dBm
0
0
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
d
d
n P P
r
Now consider the forward link where the desired signal is the
serving BS and where the interference is due to co-channel BSs.

If D
i
is the distance of the i th interferer from the mobile, the
received power at a given mobile due to the i th interfering cell
will be proportional to (D
i
)
-n
.

The path loss exponent typically ranges between 2 and 4 in
urban cellular systems.

When the transmit power of each BS is equal and the path loss
exponent is the same throughout the coverage area.
S/I for a mobile can be approximated as

( )
(2.8)
0
1
=
i
i
n
i
n
D
R
I
S
Considering only the first layer of interfering cells.

If all the interfering BSs are equidistant from the desired
BS and if this distance is equal to the distance D between
cell centers.
Then equation (2.8) simplifies to

Eq. (2.9) relates S/I to the cluster size N which in turn
determines the overall capacity of the system from eq.
(2.2).
It should be noted that eq. (2.9) is based on the hexagonal
cell geometry where all the interfering cells are equidistant
from the BS receiver.

( )
( )
(2.9)
3
0 0
n
n
i
N
i
R
D
I
S
= =
From figure 2.11
It can be seen for a 7-cell cluster with the
mobile unit is at the cell boundary.
The mobile is a distance D-R from the two
nearest co-channel interfering cells and,
approximately D+R/2, D, D-R/2, and
D+R from the other interfering cells in the
first tier.
Using eq. (2.9) and assuming n equals 4.
The SIR for the worst case can closely
approximated as

Eq. (2.10) can be rewritten in terms of the
co-channel reuse ratio Q as

(2.10)
2 ) ( 2 ) ( 2
4 4 4
4

+ + +
=
D R D R D
R
I
S
Fig. 2.11 Illustration of the first
tier of co-channel cells for N=7
(2.11)
2 ) 1 ( 2 ) 1 ( 2
1
4 4 4
+ + +
=
Q Q Q I
S

Illustration of the first tier of co-channel cells for N=7

Example 2.2
If SIR of 15 dB is required for satisfactory forward channel performance of
a cellular system, what is the frequency reuse factor and cluster size
that should be used for maximum capacity if the path loss exponent is
(a) n=4, (b) n=3?
Assume that there are 6 co-channels cells in the first tier, and all of them
are at same distance from the mobile. Use suitable approximations.

Solution
(a) n = 4
First, let us consider a 7-cell reuse pattern.
Using eq. (2.4), the co-channel reuse ratio D/R = 4.583.
Using eq. (2.9), the SIR is given by
S/I = (1/6) (4.583)
4
= 75.3 = 18.66 dB.
Since this is greater than the minimum required S/I, N =7 can be used.
(b) n = 3
First let us consider a 7-cell reuse pattern.

Using equation (2.9), the SIR is given by:

S/I = (1/6) (4.583)
3
= 16.04 = 12.05 dB.

Since this is less than the minimum required S/I, larger N
should be used.

Using eq. (2.3), the next possible value of N is 12, (i = j = 2).

The corresponding co-channel ratio is given by eq. (2.4) as
D/R = 6.0

Using eq. (2.3) the SIR is given by
S/I = (1/6) (6)
3
= 36 = 15.56 dB.

Since this is greater than minimum required S/I, N = 12 can
be used.
Adjacent Channel Interference
Interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in
frequency to the desired signal is called adjacent channel
interference.
Adjacent channel interference results from imperfect receiver
filters which allow nearby frequencies to leak into the passband.

The problem can be particularly serious if
An adjacent channel user is transmitting in very close range to a
subscribers receiver.
While the receiver attempts to receive a BS on the desired
channel.
This is referred as the near-far effect.

Alternatively the near far effect occurs when a mobile
close to a BS transmits on a channel close to one being
used by a weak mobile.
The BS may have difficulty in discriminating the desired
mobile user from the bleedover caused by the close
adjacent channel mobile.
Adjacent Channel Interference (2)
Adjacent channel interference can be minimized through careful
filtering and channel assignments.

Since each cell is given only a fraction of the available channels.
A cell need not be assigned channels which are all adjacent in
frequency.

By keeping the frequency separation between each channel in a
given cell as large as possible
The adjacent channel interference may be reduced considerably.

Thus instead of assigning channels which form a contiguous band of
frequencies within a particular cell
Channels are allocated such that the frequency separation between
channels in a given cell is maximized.

By sequentially assigning successive channels in the frequency band
to different cells
Many channels allocation schemes are able to separate adjacent
channels in a cell by as many as N channels bandwidths.
Where N is the cluster size.

If the frequency reuse factor is small
The separation between adjacent channels may not be
sufficient to keep the adjacent channel interference
level within tolerable limits.
If a mobile is 20 times as close to the base station as
another mobile and energy spill out of its passband.

SIR for the weak mobile is approximately

For a path loss exponent n = 4, this is equal to -52 dB.

(2.12) ) 20 (
n
I
S

=
Example
This example illustrates how channels are divided into subsets
and allocated to different cells so that adjacent channel
interference is minimized.

The US AMPS system initially operated with 666 duplex
channels.
In 1989 the FCC allocated an additional 10 MHz of spectrum for
cellular services.
This allowed 166 new channels to be added to the AMPS
system.
There are now 832 channels used in AMPS.

The forward channel (870.030 MHz) along with the
corresponding reverse channel (825.030 MHz) in numbered as
channel 1.

Similarly the forward channel 889.98 MHz along with the
reverse channel 844.98 MHz is numbered as 666.

The extended band has channels numbered as 667 through
799, and 990 through 1023.
Example (cont.)
In order to encourage competition
FCC licensed the channels to two competing
operators in every service area.
Each operator received half of the total channels.

The channels used by the two operators are
distinguished as block A and block B channels.
Block B is operated by companies which have
traditionally provided telephone services called
(wireline operators), and
Block A is operated by companies that have not
traditionally provided telephone services called
(nonwireline operators).
Example (cont.)
Out of the 416 channels used by each operator
395 are voice channels
The remaining 21 are control channels.

In block A
Channels 1 through 312 (voice channels). (312 CHs)
Channels 313 through 333 (control channels). (21 CHs)
Extended block A voice channels

In block B
Channels 334 through 354 (control channels). (21 CHs)
Extended block B voice channels

Example (cont.)
Each of the 395 voice channels are divided into
21 subsets.
Each containing about 19 channels.

In each subset
The closet adjacent channel is 21 channels away.

In a 7-cell reuse system
Each cell uses 3 subsets of channels.
The 3 subsets are assigned such that every channel in
the cell is assured of being separated from every other
channel by at least 7 channels spacing.
AMPS Frequency Allocation
AMPS Channel Allocation for A and B Side Carriers
Power Control for Reducing Interference
In practical cellular radio and PCS the power levels
transmitted by every subscriber unit are under constant
control by the serving base stations.

This is done to ensure that each mobile transmits the
smallest power necessary to maintain a good quality link on
the reverse channel.

Power control not only helps prolong battery life for the
subscriber unit.
It also dramatically reduces the reverse channel S/I in the
system.

power control is especially important for emerging CDMA
spread spectrum systems that allow every user in every cell
to share the same radio channel.
Trunking and Grade of Service
Cellular radio systems rely on trunking to
accommodate a large number of users in a limited
radio spectrum.

The concept of trunking allows a large number of users
to share the relatively small number of channels in a
cell
By providing access to each user on demand from a pool of
available channels.
In a trunked radio system each user is allocated a channel
on a per call basis.
Upon termination of the call the previously occupied
channel is immediately returned to the pool of available
channels.
Trunking exploits the statistical behavior of users so that a
fixed number of channels or circuits may accommodate a
large, random user community.
Trunking and Grade of Service (2)
The telephone company uses trunking theory to determine
the number of telephone circuits that need to be allocated
for office buildings with hundreds of telephones.
The same principle is used in designing cellular radio systems.

There is a trade-off between the number of available
telephone circuits and the likelihood of a particular user
finding that no circuits are available during the peak calling
time.
As the number of phone lines decreases, it becomes more likely
that all circuits will be busy for a particular user.

In a trunked mobile radio system when a particular user
requests service and all of the radio channels are already in
use,
the user is blocked, or
denied access to the system.
In some systems a queue may be used to hold the requesting
users until a channel becomes available.
The fundamentals of trunking theory were developed
by Erlang a Danish mathematician,
In the late 19th century he embarked on the study of how
a large population could be accommodated by a limited
number of servers.
Today, the measure of traffic intensity bears his name.

One Erlang represents the amount of traffic intensity
carried by a channel that is completely occupied.
one call-hour per hour or one call-minute per minute.
For example a radio channel that is occupied for thirty
minutes during an hour carries 0.5 Erlangs of traffic.

The grade of service (GOS) is a measure of the ability of
a user to access a trunked system during the busiest
hour.

The busy hour is based upon customer demand
at the busiest hour during a week, month, or
year.
The busy hours for cellular radio systems typically
occur during rush hours, between 4 p.m. and 6 p.m.
on a Thursday or Friday evening.

It is the wireless designers job to
Estimate the maximum required capacity, and
Allocate the proper number of channels in order to
meet the GOS.

GOS is typically given as the likelihood that a call
is blocked, or the likelihood of a call experiencing
a delay greater than a certain queuing time.
Definitions of Common Terms Used in Trunking Theory
Set-up Time: The time required to allocate a trunked radio channel to
a requesting user.

Blocked Call: Call which cannot be completed at time of request, due
to congestion. Also referred to as a lost call.

Holding Time: Average duration of a typical call. Denoted by H (in
seconds).

Traffic Intensity: Measure of channel time utilization, which is the
average channel occupancy measured in Erlangs. This is a
dimensionless quantity and may be used to measure the time
utilization of single or multiple channels. Denoted by A.

Load: Traffic intensity across the entire trunked radio system,
measured in Erlangs.

Grade of Service (GOS): A measure of congestion which is specified as
the probability of a call being blocked (for Erlang B), or the probability
of a call being delayed beyond a certain amount of time (for Erlang C).

Request Rate: The average number of call requests per unit time.
Denoted by seconds1.
The traffic intensity offered by each user is equal to the call request
rate multiplied by the holding time.

That is, each user generates a traffic intensity of A
u
Erlangs given by
A
u
= H (2.13)
where H is the average duration of a call and is the average
number of call requests per unit time for each user.

For a system containing U users and an unspecified number of
channels, the total offered traffic intensity A is given as
A = UA
u
(2.14)

Furthermore in a C channel trunked system, if the traffic is equally
distributed among the channels then the traffic intensity per
channel A
c
is given as
A
c
= UA
u
/ C

(2.15)

Note that the offered traffic is not necessarily the traffic which is
carried by the trunked system, only that which is offered to the
trunked system.
The maximum possible carried traffic is the total number of
channels C in Erlangs.

The AMPS cellular system is designed for a GOS of 2% blocking.
This implies that the channel allocations for cell sites are designed so
that 2 out of 100 calls will be blocked due to channel occupancy during
the busiest hour.

There are two types of trunked systems which are commonly
used.

1. Blocked Calls Cleared

It offers no queuing for call requests.
it is assumed there is no setup time.
the user is given immediate access to a channel if one is available.
If no channels are available
the requesting user is blocked without access and is free to try again
later.

Blocked Calls Cleared (cont.)

Assumes that calls arrive as determined by a Poisson
distribution.

It is assumed that there are an infinite number of users as
well as the following:

a) There are memoryless arrivals of requests, implying that all
users, including blocked users, may request a channel at any
time.

b) The probability of a user occupying a channel is exponentially
distributed, so that longer calls are less likely to occur as
described by an exponential distribution.

c) There are a finite number of channels available in the trunking
pool.

This is known as an M/M/m/m queue, and leads to the
derivation of the Erlang B formula.


The Erlang B formula determines the probability that a call is
blocked
It is a measure of the GOS for a trunked system which provides no queuing
for blocked calls.

The Erlang B formula is given by:

where C is the number of trunked channels offered by a trunked radio
system and A is the total offered traffic.

The Erlang B formula provides a conservative estimate of the
GOS, as the finite user results always predict a smaller
likelihood of blocking.

| | (3.16)
!
!
0
GOS
k
A
C
A
blocking P
C
k
k
C
r
= =
=


The capacity of a trunked radio system where blocked calls are lost
is tabulated for various values of GOS and numbers of channels in
Table.
Capacity of an Erlang B System
2. Blocked Calls Delayed

It is the second kind of trunked system.

It is one in which a queue is provided to hold calls
which are blocked.

If a channel is not available immediately
The call request may be delayed until a channel becomes
available.

Its measure of GOS is defined as
The probability that a call is blocked after waiting a specific
length of time in the queue.

To find the GOS
it is first necessary to find the likelihood that a call is
initially denied access to the system.

Blocked Calls Delayed (cont.)
The likelihood of a call not having immediate access to a
channel is determined by the Erlang C formula derived in
Appendix A

If no channels are immediately available the call is delayed
The probability that the delayed call is forced to wait more than t seconds is
given by the probability that a call is delayed multiplied by the conditional
probability that the delay is greater than t seconds.

The GOS of a trunked system where blocked calls are
delayed is hence given by

| | (3.17)
!
1 !
0
1
0
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
= >
C
k
k
C
C
r
k
A
C
A
C A
A
delay P
| | | | | |
| | ( ) ( ) (3.18) / exp 0

0 0
H t A C delay P
delay t delay P delay P t delay P
r
r r r
> =
> > > = >

Blocked Calls Delayed (cont.)

The average delay D for all calls in a queued system is given by

where the average delay for those calls which are queued is given by H/(C A).

The Erlang B and Erlang C formulas are plotted in graphical form
in Figures 2.12 and 2.13.
These graphs are useful for determining GOS in rapid fashion, although computer
simulations are often used to determine transient behaviors experienced by
particular users in a mobile system.

To use Figures 2.12 and 2.13, locate the number of channels on
the top portion of the graph.
Locate the traffic intensity of the system on the bottom portion of the graph.
The blocking probability Pr[blocking] is shown on the abscissa of Figure 3.6.
Pr[delay] > 0 is shown on the abscissa of Figure 3.7.
With two of the parameters specified it is easy to find the third parameter.
| | (3.19) 0
A C
H
delay P D
r
> =
Erlang B
Fig. 2.12 The Erlang B chart showing the probability of blocking as functions of the number of
channels and traffic intensity in Erlangs
Erlang C
Fig. 2.13 The Erlang C chart showing the probability of a call being delayed as a function of
the number of channels and traffic intensity in Erlangs.

MC 2011

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Mobile Communications

Dr.-Ing. Ibrahim Ismail Al-Kebsi

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