OB

Session 1-2

Organisational Behaviour
Organisational Behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about how people as individuals and as groups act within organisations. It strives to identify ways in which people can act more effectively.

Importance of Organisational Behaviour

An organisation is a unique living organism whose basic component is the individual and this individual is our fundamental unit of study. Problems of conflict that we face cannot be solved by scientific and technical skills alone; they require social skills. Many of our most critical problems are not in the world of things but in the world of people.

Organisation
An organisation is a systematic arrangement of people and technology to accomplish some purpose. Organisations are social units deliberately created to seek specific goals. An entire company is an organisation, so is a division, department or section of several persons within a larger organisation.

Organisation Contd.
An ideal organisation might be seen as one that operates with maximum efficiency, profitability and employee satisfaction.

Behaviour
Behaviour is anything a person or animal does that can be observed in some way. It means more that just bodily movements. Behaviour could include feelings, attitudes, thoughts and other mental processes. Behaviour is essentially goal oriented. Our behaviour is generally motivated by a desire to attain some goal.

Behaviour Contd.
The specific goal is not always consciously known by the individual. The reason for our action is not always apparent to the conscious mind. The basic unit of behaviour is an activity. All behaviour is a series of activities. To predict behaviour, managers must know which motives or needs of people evoke a certain action at a particular time.

Goals
1. Describe how people behave in a variety of conditions. 1. Understand why people behave as they do. 3. Predict future human behaviour 4. Control and develop human activity at work.

Key Elements
1. People make up the internal social system of the organisation. 1. Structure defines the official relationships of people in organisations. 1. Technology provides the physical and economic resources with which people work. 1. Environment All organisations operate within an internal and an external environment.

The Nature of People

1. Individual differences (Including Perceptions) 2. Whole person 1. Motivated behaviour 1. Desire for involvement 1. Value of the person (Human Dignity / Ethical Treatment)

The Nature of Organisations

1.Social Systems Organisations are social systems and consequently activities here are governed by social and psychological realities. Just as people have psychological needs, they also have social roles and status. Their behaviour is influenced by their group as well as their individual drives.

The Nature of Organisations Contd.

1.Social Systems Contd. Two types of social systems exist side by side in organisations. One is the formal (Official) social system and the other is the informal social system. 2. Mutual Interest / Psychological Contract Organisations need people and people also need organizations.

Organisational Behaviour Model

Ability Factors (Mental Factors, Skills, etc.) Personality Factors (Values, Interests, Motivation, etc.)

Work and Environment Variables (Equipment, Methods, etc.)

Selecting for

Special Training (Amount and Method)

Designing for Organisational Variables (Leadership, Incentives, etc.)

Training for

Experience (Amount and Type)

Effective Behaviour and Work Performance

Four Models of Organisational Behaviour

Parameters Autocratic Custodial Economic Resources Money Security and Benefits Supportive Leadership Support Collegial Partnership Teamwork Basis of Model Power Managerial Orientation Employee Orientation Employee Psychological Result Employee needs met Performance result Authority Obedience

Job Responsible Performance Behaviour Participation Self-discipline

Dependence Dependence on Boss on Organisation Subsistence Minimum Security Passive Cooperation

Status and Recognition Awakened drives

Selfactualisation Moderate enthusiasm

Why OB
IT, globalization, diversity, ethics etc are very important environmental or contextual dimensions of OB. However the general premise is that OB and managing people , the HR of an organization have been, are and shall be the major challenge and source of critical competitive advantage.
1-16

Changes and coping with changes

Technological and human components are inextricably blended. Jobs are less tightly defined. Contingent worker comprise a major chunk of work force. Customers define the work in organisations and standards applied to evaluating that work. Teams rather than individuals create the basic unit of work. Organization charts fail to capture the networks of influence and relationships that characterise organisations.
1-17

The future
Knowledge workers will rent professional skills on freelance basis to companies at different times. Downsizing upsizing growth and stabilization will all be welcome with people having mechanisms to cope with it all. 24/7 global environment will be dependent on efficiency and t6imeliness rather than dedicated staff hours. The big companies will become much less of an economic force. Employees will customize their benefit programs. Boundaries between school and work will blur. Digital divide .

Paradigm
Coined by Thomas Kuhn, a science historian Now used as a broad model, a framework, a way of thinking, or scheme of understanding reality. paradigm shift means a real controversy at the very basic levels and requires restructuring of the entire scientific community under conditions of uncertainty. The paradigm effect is when those in current paradigm dont even see the changes, let alone reasoning, drawing conclusions and perceptions about the changes.

1-19

Historical background, methodology and theoretical framework

3 dimensions of management- technical( including IT) , conceptual and human. Managers have traditionally been good in technical/functional aspects but conceptual and human components got ignored or lost in overly simplistic assumptions. McGregors theory X lead to application of security , monetary incentives, and good working conditions. Humans are however too complex.
1-20

Historical background, methodology and theoretical framework

Jeff Pfeffer summarized current status of OB approach to real world management as 1/8 situation. of managers believe and buy into the human side of enterprise. Of them do something about it in terms of HPWP( high performance work practices), like pay for performance, 360 feedback, self managed teams, and behavior management. Further only of these stick to these practices over time. This makes it X X = 1/8 1-21

The Howthorne studies.

Illumination studies: no effect wrt light ,production increased and control and test groups behaved similarly Relay room study: specific variables were altered like length of workday, rest sessions but the result was that output was independent of these factors too. It increased irrespective of the subjected conditions. Bank wiring study: opposite of relay room experiments. Production was low, remained constant and group norms deterred it from rising. Binging, social ostracism, ridicule, name calling were applied by workers to obtain compliance to group norms.
1-22

Simple Relationships Among Problems, Methodology, And Knowledge

Body of Knowledge

Research Methodology

Problems and Questions about Organizational Behavior

1-23

The Relationship Of Organizational Behavior To Other Closely Related Disciplines

Theoretical

Organization Theory (OT)

Organizational Behavior (OB)

Applied

Organization Development (OD)

Human Resource Management (HRM)

Macro
1-24

Micro

A Social Learning Approach To Organizational Behavior

ORGANIZATIONAL PARTICIPANTS

Cognitive representations of reality help guide organizational behavior

Participants control their own behavior to the extent that they rely on cognitive supports and manage relevant environmental cues and consequences

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
1-25

Much of complex behavior is acquired by directly observing and imitating others in the surrounding environment

ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT

The Basic Human Capabilities According To Banduras Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)
Symbolizing Employees process visual experiences (customer named Applegate) into cognitive models (apple) that then serve as guides for future actions (remembering his name easily) Forethought Employees plan their actions (what I am going to do), anticipate the consequences (what am I going to get for it), and determine the level of desired performance (what is my performance goal) Observational Employees learn by observing the performance of referent (peers or supervisors) and credible others (high performers), and the consequences they receive for their actions (what do they get for it) Self-regulatory Employees selfcontrol their actions by setting internal standards (aspired level of performance) and by evaluating the discrepancy between the standard and the performance (where do I stand) in order to improve it Self-reflective Employees reflect back on their actions (how did I do) and perceptually determine how strongly they believe they can successfully accomplish the task in the future given the context (0 100% certainty)

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A Conceptual Framework For The Study Of Organizational Behavior

Environmental Context 2. Info. Tech & Globalization 3. Diversity & Ethics Organizational Context 4. Design & Culture 5. Reward System
Social Cognitive Theory Organizational Behavior

Dynamics 10. Communication 11. Decision Making 12. Stress & Conflict 13. Power & Politics 14. Groups & Teams

Managing and Leading for High Performance 15. Goals & Job Design 16. Behavioral Management 17. Leadership Processes & Skills 18. Great Leaders Really Do

Cognitive Processes 6. Perception & Attribution 7. Personality & Attitudes 8. Motivational Needs & Processes 1-27 9. Emotional Intelligence,

The Howthorne experiments: .Elton Mayo-

emphasising the significance of recognition security, informal groups and impact on productivity.
Theory X- Douglas McGregor

People are lazy and have inherent dislike for work.

Theory Y- Douglas McGregor

Work comes naturally to people.

Theory Z- William Ouchi

Blends positive aspects of US and japanese mgmt Stresses on creating a close and trusting environment.

Organisation Behavior.
1. OB is a field of study That investigates the impact of individuals, groups and structure on behavior within organization. For purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving organization effectiveness. Cause and effect relationship of behavior becomes systematic and replaces intuition. 2.understanding, prediction and management of human behaviour in organisations

ntributions of various behavioral disciplines Measure, explain and sometimes change behavior Studies people in relation to fellow humans. Studies influence of people on one another- Change Study of societies to learn about humans and activities.

ychology.

ciology.

cial psychology

thropology:

l science:

Behavior of groups and individuals in political environm

Challenges & opportunities of O.B.

1. Responding to globalisation Increased foreign assignments. Working with people of different cultures. Coping with anticapitalism backlash. Movement of job to countries with low cost labor. 2. Managing workforce diversity- Heterogeneous mix of people. 1. Social justice groups. 2. Gender issues. 3. Age factor. 4. Cultural diversity. 3. Improving Quality and productivity1. Lean manufacturing 2. Empowering people at grassroots for better services.

Challenges & opportunities of O.B.

6. Improving people skills. 7. Working in networked organisations 8. Help employees balance work life balance. 9. Improving ethical behavior.

Developing an OB model

ependent Variable (Effects) Independent Variable (Effects) Productivity. Absenteeism Turnover 1. Individual level variables: Biographical sketch, ability, values, attitudes, emotions, personality.

2. Group level variables. sum total of individuals acting in their own way. Organizational citizenship. Communication pattern, leadership, power, politics. Job satisfaction. Situations 3. Organizational variables. HR policies, designs, internal culture. Contingency model

Session 2

Perceptions

Say the color the word is printed in not the word itself. Do it without a mistake in under 15 seconds.

The Subprocesses Of Perception

STIMULUS OR SITUATION

PERSON

External Environment Confrontation Registration Interpretation Feedback of specific of stimulus of stimulus for clarification stimulus Physical
Office Factory floor Climate store

BEHAVIOR

Sociocultural
Mgmt style Values discrimination

Behavior (overt or covert)

Consequence (reinforcement, CONSEQUENCES punishment)

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The Contrast Principle Of Perception

6-38

The Role That Learning Plays In Perception

6-39

Kellys Model Of Attribution

Example of Organizational Behavior

Coworkers are also performing poorly on this task The subordinate does not do well on this task during only one time period The subordinate does well on other tasks, but not this one Coworkers are performing very well on this task The subordinate does not do well on this task at any time The subordinate does poorly on other tasks as 6-40 well as this one

Type of Information/ Observation

Attribution Made

High consensus Low consistency High distinctiveness Low consensus High consistency Low distinctiveness Internal (personal factors) External (situational or environmental factors)

Impression Management Strategies

Accounts

Apologies

Entitlements

Enhancements

DemotionPreventative Strategy

PromotionEnhancing Strategy

Disassociation
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Obstacle disclosures

Association

Comparing Organizations On The Basis Of Dress

High

Conspicuousness

Pittsburgh Steelers U.S. Army Brinks Security Burger King Agency Disneyland Hospital Insurance Agency University
Random Heterogeneity Stratified Homogeneity

Wall Street Traders

Low

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Complete Homogeneity

What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?

Peoples behavior is Peoples behavior is based on their based on their perception of what perception of what reality is, not on reality is, not on reality itself. reality itself. The world as it is The world as it is perceived is the world perceived is the world that is behaviorally that is behaviorally important. important.

Sensation: The five senses are constantly bombarded by numerous stimuli including light, sound waves, mechanical and chemical energy from objects one can smell or taste

Perception is much more complex and broader than sensation.

Sub processes of Perception

EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL Sensual Stimulation Physical Environment Office Factory Floor Research methodology Store, etc Sociocultural Environment Management styles values Discrimination, etc Organisational Behaviour 45

Confrontation of Registration specific stimulus Of Stimulus (e.g., (e.g., Supervisor or sensory and Neural mechanisms) new procedure)

Interpretation of the stimulus (e.g., motivation, learning And personality)

Feedback For clarification (e.g., kinesthetic or Psychological) Behavior (e.g., over such as Rushing off or covert such as attitude) Consequence (e.g., reinforcement/ Punishment or Some organisational outcome

Perception depends upon senses for raw data, the cognitive process filters, modifies or completely changes these data

Components of Perception
The perceiver is the person trying to interpret some observation that he or she has just made, or the input from his or her senses. The target of perception is whatever the perceiver is trying to make sense of.
In OB terms, the target of perception is often another person.

The situation is the context in which perception takes place.

The Accuracy of Perceptions

The perceptual process does not always yield accurate perceptions. The accuracy of perceptions is critical, however, for a number of managerial functions.
Motivating subordinates Treating subordinates fairly and equitably Making ethical decisions

Managers who understand what perceptions are, how they are formed, and what influences them are in a good position to ensure that their perceptions are as accurate as possible.

Factors That Influence Perception

Perceiver Situation Target

10

Characteristics of the Target

Ambiguity

Social Status

Use of Impression Management

11

Ambiguity
Ambiguity refers to a lack of clearness or definiteness. As the ambiguity of a target increases, it becomes increasingly difficult for a perceiver to form an accurate perception. When a target is ambiguous, the perceiver needs to engage in a lot more interpretation and active construction of reality to form a perception of the target. The more ambiguous a target is, the more potential there is for errors in perception.

12

Social Status
Social status is a persons real or perceived position in society or in an organization. Targets with relatively high status are perceived to be smarter, more credible, more knowledgeable, and more responsible for their actions than lower-status targets.

13

Impression Management
Impression management is an attempt to control the perceptions or impressions of others. Targets are especially likely to use impression management tactics when interacting with perceivers who have power over them and on whom they are dependent for evaluations, raises, and promotions. Individuals who are high in self-monitoring are more likely than individuals who are low in self-monitoring to engage in impression management tactics.

14

Impression Management Tactics

(Table 4.2)

Behavioral Matching

The target of perception matches his or her behavior to that of the perceiver.

A subordinate tries to imitate her bosss behavior by being modest and soft-spoken because her boss is modest and soft-spoken. A worker reminds his boss about his past accomplishments and associates with coworkers who are evaluated highly. A worker stays late every night even if she has completed all of her assignments because staying late is one of the norms of her organization. A coworker compliments a manager on his excellent handling of a troublesome employee.

The target tries to present herself Selfor himself in as positive a light as Promotion possible. Conforming The target follows agreed-upon to Situational rules for behavior in the organization. Norms Appreciating The target compliments the perThis or Flattering ceiver. is nottactic works best when flattery extreme and when it Others involves a dimension important to the perceiver.

Being Consistent

The targets beliefs and behaviors are consistent. There is agreement between the targets verbal and nonverbal behaviors.

A subordinate delivering a message to his boss looks the boss straight in the eye and has a sincere expression on his face.

15

Salience
Salience is the extent to which a target of perception stands out in a group of people or things. Causes of salience
Being novel: Anything that makes a target unique in a situation (e.g., being the only young person). Being figural: Standing out from the background (e.g., by wearing bright clothes). Being inconsistent with other peoples expectations: Behaving or looking in a way that is out of the ordinary.

Consequences of salience
Extreme evaluations (positive or negative) Stereotyping

Advice to Managers
-Be careful not to jump to conclusions about coworkers, superiors, and subordinates simply because they appear to fit one of your preexisting schemas. Wait to form your opinions until you have gathered enough information to make a fair judgment. -Make sure your perceptions of workers are based on their skills, capabilities, accomplishments, on-the-job behaviors, and levels of job performance. -Do not allow your perceptions to be influenced by characteristics of a target (such as race, age, and gender) that are unrelated to job behaviors and performance. -Try to treat organizational members who stand out from others the same as you treat those who do not stand out.

Person/Social Perception: Making Judgments About Others

Attribution theory
This theory has been proposed to develop explanations of the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behavior. Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe an individuals behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused.

Determinants:
1. Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations. 2. Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation. 3. Consistency: responds in the same way over time.

Attribution Theory

Errors and Biases in Attributions

Errors and Biases in Attributions (contd)

Errors and Biases in Attributions (contd)

Actor-observer effect - The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal causes and to attribute ones own behavior to external causes. Self-serving attribution - The tendency to take credit for successes and avoid blame for failures.

Advice to Managers
Make sure your attributions for other peoples behavior are as accurate as possible. Consider external factors that may be responsible for other peoples behavior, such as inadequate resources or supplies, an exceptionally difficult task, or chance occurrences. Consider internal factors that may be responsible for your own behavior, such as your personality, your strengths and weaknesses, and your level of motivation. Be aware of the tendency in yourself and in others to take credit for successes and avoid blame for errors.

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others(social perception cont.)

1. Selective perception 2. Halo effect 3. Contrast effects 4. Projection 5. Stereotyping

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others, Contd.,

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Expectations or predictions play a causal role in bringing about the events we predict (Forced
Eventuality/Scenario Fulfillment)

17

Biases and Problems in Perception

Primacy Effects
The initial pieces of information that a perceiver has about a target have an inordinately large effect on the perceivers perception and evaluation of the target. The perceivers perceptions of others influence the perceivers perception of a target. Interviewers decide in the first few minutes of an interview whether or not a job candidate is a good prospect.

Contrast Effect

A managers perception of an average subordinate is likely to be lower if that subordinate is in a group with very high performers rather than in a group with very low performers. A subordinate who has made a good overall impression on a supervisor is rated as performing high-quality work and always meeting deadlines regardless of work that is full of mistakes and late.

Halo Effect

The perceivers general impression of a target influences his or her perception of the target on specific dimensions.

18

Biases and Problems in Perception

Similar-tome Effect
People perceive others who are similar to themselves more positively than they perceive those who are dissimilar. Supervisors rate subordinates who are similar to them more positively than they deserve.

Harshness, Leniency, and Average Tendency Knowledge of Predictor

Some perceivers tend to be overly harsh in their perceptions, some overly lenient. Others view most targets as being about average.

When rating subordinates performances, some supervisors give almost everyone a poor rating, some give almost everyone a good rating, and others rate almost everyone as being about average.

Knowing how a target stands on a A professor perceives a student more positively predictor of performance influences than she deserves because the professor knows perceptions of the target. the student had a high score on the SAT.

Advice to Managers
Be careful not to let your first impressions have too strong an effect on your perceptions of others. Avoid categorizing workers -- that is, fitting them to a schema -- until you have sufficient information to form an accurate perception. When evaluating or interviewing a series of individuals, do not let your evaluations of preceding individuals influence your ratings of those that follow. Be careful not to be lenient in your perceptions of people who are similar to you and overly harsh to those who are dissimilar to you. If you tend to rate most of your subordinates very negatively, very positively, or just about average, stop and think whether each individual truly deserves the rating he or she received. Share organizational members standing on predictors of performance only with people who need this information for decision making. Be careful not to let this information bias your own perceptions.

 Employment Interview Perceptual biases affect the accuracy of interviewers judgments of applicants. Performance Expectations Self-fulfilling prophecy (pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities. Performance Evaluations Appraisals are subjective perceptions of performance.

Specific Applications of Shortcuts in Organization

Specific Applications of Shortcuts in Organization (Contd)

Employee Effort Assessment of individual effort is a subjective judgment subject to perceptual distortion and bias. Employee Loyalty Employee support towards the organization. Whistle-Blowers Individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders

Perceptional organization Impact

EXTERNAL
Intensity Size Contrast Repetition Motion Novelty Familiarity

Time and situation

INTERNAL
Concept of Set Motivation Learning Personality

Figure-Ground Perceptual Grouping Perceptual Constancy Perceptual Context Perceptual Defense

 Rorschach test ink blotches

1. Past experience

2. Gestalt organizing principles (tendencies)

Gestalt psychologists: Recognized- we seek meaning, pattern, structure Asked: Any basic tendencies governing how we organize sensory input?
Found several

Gestalt Movement
Perceptual organization was a big issue. How we perceive the world in terms of things/objects, not pixels. This was part of broader attack on behaviorism. Gestalt viewed mind as constructing representations of the world, no learning/behavior could be understood without understanding it.

Perceptual organization

e.g., Continuity
What do you see? How many lines?

We have preference for continuous figures

(also illustrates Closure)

e.g., Proximity

Figure -Ground

Figure-ground reversals

Perceptual constancy
stability in perception despite gross instability in stimulation. Even though the retinal image of a receding automobile shrinks in size, the normal, experienced person perceives the size of the object to remain constant. Psychologists have proposed several explanations for the phenomenon of size constancy. First, people learn the general size of objects through experience and use this knowledge to help judge size. For example, we know that insects are smaller than people and that people are smaller than elephants. In addition, people take distance into consideration when judging the size of an object. Thus, if

 Perceptual defense- Denial, modification & distortion, change in perception, recognition but refusal to change

Session 3-4

Personality and Attitudes

7-85

 Define the overall meaning of personality Learning Objectives Identify the Big Five personality traits and the MyersBriggs types Describe the meaning of attitudes and their emotional, informational, and behavioral components Explain the antecedents of work-related attitudes, the functions they perform, and how they are changed Examine the major sources and outcomes of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and prosocial, organizational citizenship behaviors
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Steps Leading To Successful Organizational Socialization

New recruits placed in high morale groups Relaxed orientation program Socialization by a good supervisor Timely/ consistent feedback Relevant training Challenging first job
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The Big Five Personality Traits

Core Traits Conscientiousness Emotional stability Agreeableness Extraversion Openness to experience Descriptive Characteristics of High Scorers Dependable, hardworking, organized, selfdisciplined, persistent, responsible Calm, secure, happy, unworried Cooperative, warm, caring, good-natured, courteous, trusting Sociable, outgoing, talkative, assertive, \ gregarious Curious, intellectual, creative, cultured, artistically sensitive, flexible, imaginative

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The Jung Theory Dimensions And The Meyers-Briggs Type Indicators

Where do you get your energy? Extraversion (E) Outgoing Interacting Speaks, then thinks Gregarious Introversion(I) Quiet Concentrating Thinks, then speaks Reflective

How do you orient yourself to the outside world? Judging (J) Structured Time oriented Decisive Organized
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Perceiving (P) Flexible Open ended Exploring Spontaneous

The Jung Theory Dimensions And The Meyers-Briggs Type Indicators (Cont.)
What do you pay attention to and collect information on? Sensing (S) Practical Details Concrete Specific Intuiting (I) General Possibilities Theoretical Abstract How do you evaluate and make decisions? Thinking (T) Analytical Head Rules Justice
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Feeling (F) Subjective Heart Circumstance Mercy

Components Of Attitudes

Emotional

Informational

Behavioral

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Influences On Job Satisfaction

The Work Itself

Pay

Coworkers

Job Satisfaction

Promotion Opportunities

Supervision
7-92

Work Conditions

What Is Personality?

Heredity Environment Situation

What is Personality? Personality

The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others. Personality Traits Enduring characteristics that describe an individuals behavior. Personality Personality Determinants Determinants
Heredity Heredity Environment Environment Situation Situation

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Personality
Characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting.
Four major perspectives on Personality Psychoanalytic - unconscious motivations Trait - specific dimensions of personality Humanistic - inner capacity for growth Social-Cognitive - influence of environment

Freud & Personality Structure

Id - energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives
Pleasure Principle

Ego - seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways

Reality Principle

Ego

Super Ego Id

Super Ego
- voice of conscience that focuses on how we ought to behave

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types.

Personality Types Personality Types

Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I) Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I) Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N) Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N) Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F) Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F) Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J) Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J)
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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Type of Social Interaction Preference for Gathering Data Preference for Decision Making Style of Decision Making Extrovert (E) Introvert (I)
Sensing (S) Intuitive (N) Feeling (F) Thinking (T) Perceptive (P) Judgmental (J)

The Big Five Model of Extroversion Personality Dimensions Sociable, gregarious, and assertive
Agreeableness
Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.

Conscientiousness

Responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized.

Emotional Stability

Calm, self-confident, secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative).

Openness to Experience
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Imaginativeness, artistic, sensitivity, and intellectualism.

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Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB

Locus of control Machiavellianism Self-esteem Self-monitoring Risk taking Type A personality
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Locus of Control Locus of Control

The degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate. Internals
Individuals who believe that they control what happens to them.

Externals

Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance.
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Machiavellianism (Mach)

Machiavellianism

Degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means.

Conditions Favoring High Machs Conditions Favoring High Machs Direct interaction Direct interaction Minimal rules and regulations Minimal rules and regulations Emotions distract for others Emotions distract for others
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Self-Esteem and Self-Monitoring Self-Esteem (SE)

Individuals degree of liking or disliking themselves. Self-Monitoring A personality trait that measures an individuals ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors.

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Risk-Taking
High Risk-taking Managers
Make quicker decisions Use less information to make decisions Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial organizations

Low Risk-taking Managers

Are slower to make decisions Require more information before making decisions Exist in larger organizations with stable environments

Risk Propensity
Aligning managers risk-taking propensity to job requirements should be beneficial to organizations.
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Type As 1. are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly; 2. feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place; 3. strive to think or do two or more things at once; 4. cannot cope with leisure time; 5. are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire.

Personality Types

Type Bs 1. never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience; 2. feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments; 3. play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost; 4. can relax without guilt.
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Proactive Personality

Personality Types

Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres until meaningful change occurs. Creates positive change in the environment, regardless or even in spite of constraints or obstacles.
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Achieving Person-Job Fit Personality-Job Fit Theory

(Holland) Identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover. Personality Types Personality Types Realistic Realistic Investigative Investigative Social Social Conventional Conventional Enterprising Enterprising Artistic Artistic

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Relationships among Occupational Personality Types

Source: Reprinted by special permission of the publisher, Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc., from Making Vocational Choices, copyright 1973, 1985, 1992 by Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. All rights reserved.

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EXHIB I T 43

Hollands Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations

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EXHIB I T 42

Attitudes
An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or eventthis is often referred to as the attitude object. People can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object, meaning that they simultaneously possess both positive and negative attitudes toward the item in question. Attitudes are judgments. They develop on the ABC model.
The affective response is an emotional response that expresses an individual's degree of preference for an entity. The behavioral intention is a verbal indication or typical behavioral tendency of an individual. The cognitive response is a cognitive evaluation of the entity that constitutes an individual's beliefs about the object

Most attitudes are the result of either direct experience or observational learning from the environment.

What Are Attitudes?

Cognitive component Affective component Behavioral component

Attitudes
Attitudes
Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. Cognitive component
The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.

Affective Component

The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.

Behavioral Component

An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.

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Types of Attitudes
Job satisfaction Job involvement Organizational commitment

Job Satisfaction A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds toward his or her job. Job Involvement Identifying with the job, actively participating in it, and considering performance important to self-worth. Organizational Commitment Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and wishing to maintain membership in the organization.
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Types of Attitudes

The Theory of Cognitive Cognitive Dissonance Dissonance

Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.

Desire to reduce dissonance

Importance of elements creating dissonance Degree of individual influence over elements Rewards involved in dissonance

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Measuring the A-B that attitudes (A) Relationship Recent research indicates
significantly predict behaviors (B) when moderating variables are taken into account.
Moderating Variables
Importance of the attitude Specificity of the attitude Accessibility of the attitude Social pressures on the individual Direct experience with the attitude
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Attitude-Behavior Relationship
Moderating Variables Importance Specificity Accessibility Social pressures Direct experience Low Behavioral Influence High

Self-Perception Theory
Attitudes are used after the fact to make sense out of an action that has already occurred.

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An Application: Attitude Surveys

Attitude Surveys Eliciting responses from employees through questionnaires about how they feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors, and the organization.

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Attitudes and Workforce Diversity

Training activities that can reshape employee attitudes concerning diversity:
Participating in diversity training that provides for self-evaluation and group discussions. Volunteer work in community and social serve centers with individuals of diverse backgrounds. Exploring print and visual media that recount 2005 Prentice Hall 3120 and portray diversity issues. Inc. All rights

Job Satisfaction
Measuring Job Satisfaction
Single global rating Summation score

How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs?

Job satisfaction declined to 50.4% in 2002 Decline attributed to:
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The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance

Satisfaction and Productivity
Satisfied workers arent necessarily more productive. Worker productivity is higher in organizations with more satisfied workers.

Satisfaction and Absenteeism

Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences.

Satisfaction and Turnover

Satisfied employees are less likely to quit. Organizations take actions to retain high performers and to weed out lower performers.

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Responses to Job Dissatisfaction

Source: C. Rusbult and D. Lowery, When Bureaucrats Get the Blues, Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 15, no. 1, 1985:83. Reprinted with permission.

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E X H I B I T 35

Job Satisfaction and OCB

Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)
Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by and are trusting of the organization are more willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond the normal expectations of their job.

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Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction

Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction because:
They are more friendly, upbeat, and responsive. They are less likely to turnover which helps build long-term customer relationships. They are experienced.

Dissatisfied customers increase employee job dissatisfaction.

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The Importance of Values

Judgment Content

Stability

Intensity

Types of Values
Terminal Values refer to desirable end-states of existence Instrumental Values refer to preferable modes of behavior

Terminal Terminal Values Values

Instrumental Instrumental Values Values

Rokeach Value Survey

Unique Values of Todays Workforce

Career Stage Entered the Workforce Approximate Current Age Dominant Work Values

1. Protestant Mid-1940s to Late 1950s 2. Existential 1960s to Mid-1970s 3. Pragmatic Mid-1970s to Mid-1980s 4. Generation X Mid-1980s

60 to 75 Hard working; loyal to firm; conservative 45 to 60 Nonconforming; seeks autonomy; loyal to self 35 to 45 Ambitious, hard worker; loyal to career Under 35Flexible, values leisure;

Affective Events Theory (AET)

Emotions are negative or positive responses to a work environment event. Personality and mood determine the intensity of the emotional response. Emotions can influence a broad range of work performance and job satisfaction variables. Implications of the theory: Individual response reflects emotions and mood cycles. Current and past emotions affect job satisfaction. Emotional fluctuations create variations in job satisfaction. Emotions have only short-term effects on job performance.
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and positive emotions can distract workers and

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Affective Events Theory (AET)

Source: Based on N.M. Ashkanasy and C.S. Daus, Emotion in the Workplace: The New Challenge for Managers, Academy of Management Executive, February 2002, p. 77.

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EXHIB I T 45

OB Applications of Understanding Emotions

Ability and Selection
Emotions affect employee effectiveness.

Decision Making
Emotions are an important part of the decision-making process in organizations.

Motivation
Emotional commitment to work and high motivation are strongly linked.

Leadership
Emotions are important to acceptance of messages from organizational leaders.
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OB Applications (contd)
Interpersonal Conflict
Conflict in the workplace and individual emotions are strongly intertwined.

Customer Services
Emotions affect service quality delivered to customers which, in turn, affects customer relationships.

Deviant Workplace Behaviors

Negative emotions lead to employee deviance (actions that violate norms and threaten the organization).
Productivity failures Property theft and destruction Political actions 2005 Prentice Hall 4133 Personal aggression
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Ability and Selection Emotional Intelligence

An assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a persons ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures.
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Emotional Intelligence (EI) Emotional Intelligence (EI) Self-awareness Self-awareness Self-management Self-management Self-motivation Self-motivation Empathy Empathy Social skills Social skills Research Findings Research Findings High EI scores, not high IQ High EI scores, not high IQ scores, characterize high scores, characterize high performers. performers.
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