Cells: The Living Units

Lecturer: Cindy Hope

Cell Theory

S The cell is the smallest structural and functional living unit S Organismal functions depend on individual and collective

cell functions
S Biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their

specific subcellular structures

S Continuity of life has a cellular basis

Cell Diversity

S Over 200 different types of human cells S Types differ in size, shape, subcellular components, and

functions

Erythrocytes Fibroblasts

Epithelial cells
(a) Cells that connect body parts, form linings, or transport gases Skeletal Muscle cell Smooth muscle cells Nerve cell (e) Cell that gathers information and control body functions

(b) Cells that move organs and body parts Macrophage Fat cell (c) Cell that stores (d) Cell that nutrients fights disease

(f) Cell of reproduction

Sperm

Figure 3.1

Generalized Cell

S All cells have some common structures and functions S

Human cells have three basic parts:

S Plasma membraneflexible outer boundary

S Cytoplasmintracellular fluid containing organelles

S Nucleuscontrol center

Chromatin Nucleolus Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Mitochondrion Cytosol Lysosome Centrioles Centrosome matrix

Nuclear envelope

Nucleus
Plasma membrane

Cytoskeletal elements Microtubule Intermediate filaments

Rough endoplasmic reticulum Ribosomes Golgi apparatus Secretion being released from cell by exocytosis Peroxisome
Figure 3.2

Plasma Membrane

S Bimolecular layer of lipids and proteins in a constantly

changing fluid mosaic

S Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity

S Separates intracellular fluid (ICF) from extracellular fluid

(ECF)
S Interstitial fluid (IF) = ECF that surrounds cells

Extracellular fluid (watery environment) Polar head of phospholipid molecule Cholesterol

Glycolipid Glycoprotein

Carbohydrate of glycocalyx

Outwardfacing layer of phospholipids

Integral proteins Filament of cytoskeleton Peripheral Bimolecular Inward-facing proteins lipid layer layer of containing phospholipids Nonpolar proteins tail of phospholipid Cytoplasm molecule (watery environment)

Figure 3.3

Membrane Lipids

S 75% phospholipids (lipid bilayer) S Phosphate heads: polar and hydrophilic S Fatty acid tails: nonpolar and hydrophobic (Review Fig. 2.16b)

S 5% glycolipids S Lipids with polar sugar groups on outer membrane surface

S 20% cholesterol S Increases membrane stability and fluidity

Functions of Membrane Proteins

1. 2. 3.

Transport Receptors for signal transduction Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

Membrane Proteins

S Integral proteins
S Firmly inserted into the membrane (most are

transmembrane) S Functions:
S

Transport proteins (channels and carriers), enzymes, or receptors

PLAY

Animation: Transport Proteins

(a) Transport A protein (left) that spans the membrane may provide a hydrophilic channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute. Some transport proteins (right) hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane.

Figure 3.4a

Membrane Proteins
S Peripheral proteins
S Loosely attached to integral proteins S Include filaments on intracellular surface and glycoproteins on

extracellular surface S Functions:

S

Enzymes, motor proteins, cell-to-cell links, provide support on intracellular surface, and form part of glycocalyx

Signal

(b) Receptors for signal transduction A membrane protein exposed to the outside of the cell may have a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical messenger, such as a hormone. The external signal may cause a change in shape in the protein that initiates a chain of chemical reactions in the cell.

Receptor

Figure 3.4b

(c) Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM) Elements of the cytoskeleton (cells internal supports) and the extracellular matrix (fibers and other substances outside the cell) may be anchored to membrane proteins, which help maintain cell shape and fix the location of certain membrane proteins. Others play a role in cell movement or bind adjacent cells together.

Figure 3.4c

Functions of Membrane Proteins

4. 5. 6.

Enzymatic activity Intercellular joining Cell-cell recognition

(d) Enzymatic activity

Enzymes A protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution. In some cases, several enzymes in a membrane act as a team that catalyzes sequential steps of a metabolic pathway as indicated (left to right) here.

Figure 3.4d

(e) Intercellular joining Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may be hooked together in various kinds of intercellular junctions. Some membrane proteins (CAMs) of this group provide temporary binding sites that guide cell migration and other cell-to-cell interactions. CAMs

Figure 3.4e

(f) Cell-cell recognition

Some glycoproteins (proteins bonded to short chains of sugars) serve as identification tags that are specifically recognized by other cells.

Glycoprotein
Figure 3.4f

Membrane Junctions
S Three types: S Tight junction Prevent fluids and most molecules from moving between cells
S Desmosome

Rivets or spot-welds that anchor cells together

S Gap junction

Transmembrane proteins form pores that allow small molecules to pass from cell to cell
(For spread of ions between cardiac or smooth muscle cells)

Plasma membranes of adjacent cells

Microvilli

Intercellular space

Basement membrane

Interlocking junctional proteins Intercellular space (a) Tight junctions: Impermeable junctions prevent molecules from passing through the intercellular space.
Figure 3.5a

Plasma membranes of adjacent cells

Microvilli

Intercellular space

Basement membrane Intercellular space Plaque

Linker glycoproteins (cadherins) (b) Desmosomes: Anchoring junctions bind adjacent cells together and help form an internal tension-reducing network of fibers.
Figure 3.5b

Intermediate filament (keratin)

Plasma membranes of adjacent cells

Microvilli

Intercellular space

Basement membrane Intercellular space Channel between cells (connexon)

(c) Gap junctions: Communicating junctions allow ions and small molecules to pass from one cell to the next for intercellular communication.
Figure 3.5c

Membrane Transport

S Plasma membranes are selectively permeable S Some molecules easily pass through the membrane;

others do not

Types of Membrane Transport

S Passive processes
S No cellular energy (ATP) required S Substance moves down its concentration gradient

S Active processes
S Energy (ATP) required S Occurs only in living cell membranes

Passive Processes

S
1. 2.

What determines whether or not a substance can passively permeate a membrane?

Lipid solubility of substance Channels of appropriate size Carrier proteins

3.

PLAY

Animation: Membrane Permeability

Passive Processes

S Simple diffusion S Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion S Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion S Osmosis

Passive Processes: Simple Diffusion

S Nonpolar lipid-soluble (hydrophobic) substances diffuse

directly through the phospholipid bilayer

PLAY

Animation: Diffusion

Extracellular fluid Lipidsoluble solutes

Cytoplasm (a) Simple diffusion of fat-soluble molecules directly through the phospholipid bilayer
Figure 3.7a

Passive Processes: Facilitated Diffusion

S Certain lipophobic molecules (e.g., glucose, amino acids,

and ions) use carrier proteins or channel proteins, both of which:

S Exhibit specificity (selectivity)

S Are saturable; rate is determined by number of carriers or

channels S Can be regulated in terms of activity and quantity

Facilitated Diffusion Using Carrier Proteins

S Transmembrane integral proteins transport specific polar

molecules (e.g., sugars and amino acids)

S Binding of substrate causes shape change in carrier

Lipid-insoluble solutes (such as sugars or amino acids)

(b) Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion via a protein carrier specific for one chemical; binding of substrate causes shape change in transport protein
Figure 3.7b

Facilitated Diffusion Using Channel Proteins

S Aqueous channels formed by transmembrane proteins

selectively transport ions or water

S Two types:
S Leakage channels
S S

Always open Controlled by chemical or electrical signals

S Gated channels

Small lipidinsoluble solutes

(c) Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion through a channel protein; mostly ions selected on basis of size and charge
Figure 3.7c

Passive Processes: Osmosis

S Movement of solvent (water) across a selectively

permeable membrane
S Water diffuses through plasma membranes:
S Through the lipid bilayer
S Through water channels called aquaporins (AQPs)

Water molecules

Lipid billayer

Aquaporin (d) Osmosis, diffusion of a solvent such as water through a specific channel protein (aquaporin) or through the lipid bilayer
Figure 3.7d

Passive Processes: Osmosis

S Water concentration is determined by solute

concentration because solute particles displace water molecules

S Osmolarity: The measure of total concentration of solute

particles
S When solutions of different osmolarity are separated by a

membrane, osmosis occurs until equilibrium is reached

(a)

Membrane permeable to both solutes and water

Solute and water molecules move down their concentration gradients in opposite directions. Fluid volume remains the same in both compartments. Left compartment: Solution with lower osmolarity Right compartment: Solution with greater osmolarity Both solutions have the same osmolarity: volume unchanged

H2O Solute

Membrane

Solute molecules (sugar)

Figure 3.8a

(b)

Membrane permeable to water, impermeable to solutes

Solute molecules are prevented from moving but water moves by osmosis. Volume increases in the compartment with the higher osmolarity. Both solutions have identical osmolarity, but volume of the solution on the right is greater because only water is free to move

Left compartment

Right compartment

H2O

Membrane

Solute molecules (sugar)

Figure 3.8b

Importance of Osmosis

S When osmosis occurs, water enters or leaves a cell S Change in cell volume disrupts cell function

PLAY

Animation: Osmosis

Tonicity

S Tonicity: The ability of a solution to cause a cell to shrink or

swell
S Isotonic: A solution with the same solute concentration as that

of the cytosol
S Hypertonic: A solution having greater solute concentration than

that of the cytosol

S Hypotonic: A solution having lesser solute concentration than

that of the cytosol

(a)

Isotonic solutions

(b)

Hypertonic solutions

(c)

Hypotonic solutions

Cells retain their normal size and shape in isotonic solutions (same solute/water concentration as inside cells; water moves in and out).

Cells lose water by osmosis and shrink in a hypertonic solution (contains a higher concentration of solutes than are present inside the cells).

Cells take on water by osmosis until they become bloated and burst (lyse) in a hypotonic solution (contains a lower concentration of solutes than are present in cells).

Figure 3.9

Summary of Passive Processes

Process Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion Osmosis Energy Source Kinetic energy Kinetic energy Kinetic energy Example Movement of O2 through phospholipid bilayer Movement of glucose into cells Movement of H2O through phospholipid bilayer or AQPs

S Also see Table 3.1