Hypothesis

Prepared By:- Group 1

Wagari Refu

Teklewoin Kassaye

Zewdu Hakimu

Meseret Yohannes

Hunbelew GebreTsadik

Michael Gezae

Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this program, we will be able to

Explain the meaning and significance of hypothesis in scientific
research

Identify the types of hypotheses

Illustrate why we need a hypothesis

Identify and categorize research variables

Create Operational Definitions

Formulate a valid hypothesis

Identify Characteristics of a good hypothesis

Test the hypothesis




Presentation Content
Brief summary on the Scientific Method

Meaning of Hypothesis

Meaning and Types of variables

Characteristics of Hypothesis

Categories of Hypothesis

Forming a Hypothesis

Testing a Hypothesis
The scientific Method
Is an overarching perspective

On how scientific investigations should
proceed

Consists of a set of research principles and
methods

that help researchers obtain valid results

from their research studies
The scientific Method (Cont)
Researchers generally agree that the
scientific method is composed of the
following key elements
1. An empirical approach,
2. Observations,
3. Questions,
4. Hypotheses,
5. Experiments,
6. Analyses,
7. Conclusions, and
8. Replication
Research Questions &
Hypothesis

Hypothesis is the fourth element of the
scientific method

However, we may not use hypothesis for
all types of research.

In a qualitative study, inquirers state research
questions, not objectives (i.e., specific goals for
the research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions
that involve variables and statistical tests).
In qualitative research, the research
questions assume two forms:
a central question and
associated sub questions

The central question is a statement of the
question being examined in the study in
its most general form.
so as to not limit the inquiry
Research Questions &
Hypothesis
Guidelines for writing broad,
qualitative research questions:
Ask one or two central questions followed by no
more than five to seven sub-questions

Relate the central question to the specific
qualitative strategy of inquiry (like ethnography ,
phenomenology, etc)
Begin the research questions with the words
what or how to convey an open and
emerging design
Examples:
How do women in a psychology doctoral program describe
their decision to return to school?
What is it like for a mother to live with a teenage child who is
dying of cancer?

Focus on a single phenomenon or concept

Guidelines (Cont)
Use exploratory verbs that convey the language of
emerging design of research. These verbs tell the
reader that the study will
Discover (e.g., grounded theory)
Seek to understand (e.g., ethnography)
Explore a process (e.g., case study)
Describe the experiences (e.g., phenomenology)
Report the stories (e.g., narrative research)
Use non-directional language
Expect the research questions to evolve and to change
during the study
Use open-ended questions without reference to the
literature or theory
If the information is not redundant with the purpose
statement, specify the participants and the research site
for the study
Hypothesis Defined
An educated guess

A tentative point of view

A proposition not yet tested

A preliminary explanation

A preliminary Postulate


Various Authors
A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation
between two or more variables. (Kerlinger, 1956)

Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good
hunches assumed for use in devising theory or
planning experiments intended to be given a direct
experimental test when possible. (Eric Rogers, 1966)

Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the
expected relationship between an independent and
dependent variable.(Creswell, 1994)

A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable
guess, an educated conjecture. It provides a tentative
explanation for a phenomenon under investigation."
(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001).
Hypothesis vs Theory vs Fact
A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to
explain some aspect of the natural world. A theory arises from
repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws,
predictions, and tested hypotheses that are widely accepted.
A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you
expect to happen in your study. For example, a study designed to
look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might
have a hypothesis that states, This study is designed to assess the
hypothesis that students with better study habits will suffer less test
anxiety. Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis
should always explain what you expect to happen during the
course of your experiment or research.
While the terms are sometimes used interchangeably in general
practice, the difference between a theory and a hypothesis is
important when studying experimental design. Some important
distinctions to note include:

A theory predicts events in general terms, while a hypothesis
makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.

A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted,
while a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.

Hypothesis Theory Fact
A specific, testable
prediction about what is
expected to happen in a
study

makes a specific
prediction about a
specified set of
circumstances

a speculative guess that
has yet to be tested

is new and relatively
untested

the probability of error
and correction are high
Well-established
principle which predicts
events in general terms

Arises from repeated
observation and testing

Incorporates facts,
laws, predictions, and
tested hypotheses that
are widely accepted

extensively tested and
is generally accepted
is something which is
assumed to be true

once a theory has been
confirmed and
reconfirmed over and
over again, we get to
the point that it will be
treated as a "fact"

doesn't mean 'absolute
certainty

One common feature for facts, theories, and hypotheses in
science is that they are all treated as fallible the
likelihood of error might vary greatly, but they are still
regarded as something less than absolute truth.
Purpose
Guides/gives direction to the study/investigation

Defines Facts that are relevant and not relevant

Suggests which form of research design is likely to be the most
appropriate

Provides a framework for organizing the conclusions of the findings


Limits the research to specific area

Offers explanations for the relationships between those variables
that can be empirically tested

Furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background
knowledge to enable her/him to make suggestions in order to
extend existing knowledge

Structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore
furnishes continuity to the examination of the problem


Basis
Individual experience,

Socio-Culture background,

Business Ethic,

Economic events

Etc..

Forms of Hypothesis
Hypotheses can take various forms,
depending on the question being asked
and the type of study being conducted
Some hypotheses may simply describe how two
things may be related. For example, correlational
research
In others the researcher might hypothesize that one
variable causes a change in the other variable (causal
relationship
In their simplest forms, hypotheses are typically
phrased as if-then statements

A Hypothesis
must make a prediction
must identify at least two variables
should have an elucidating power
should strive to furnish an acceptable
explanation or accounting of a fact
must be falsifiable meaning hypotheses must be
capable of being refuted based on the results of
the study
must be formulated in simple, understandable
terms
should correspond with existing knowledge
In general, a hypothesis needs to be
unambiguous, specific, quantifiable, testable and
generalizable.
1. A Hypothesis must be conceptually clear
- concepts should be clearly defined
- the definitions should be commonly accepted
- the definitions should be easily communicable

2. The hypothesis should have empirical
reference
- Variables in the hypothesis should be empirical realities
- If they are not it would not be possible to make the
observation and ultimately the test

3. The Hypothesis must be specific
- Place, situation and operation


Characteristics of a Testable
Hypothesis
4. A hypothesis should be related to available
techniques of research
- Either the techniques are already available or
- The researcher should be in a position to develop suitable
techniques

5. The hypothesis should be related to a body of
theory
- Hypothesis has to be supported by theoretical argumentation
- It should depend on the existing body of knowledge

In this way
- the study could benefit from the existing knowledge and
- later on through testing the hypothesis could contribute to the
reservoir of knowledge



Characteristics of a Testable
Hypothesis
Categorizing Hypotheses
Can be categorized in different ways

1. Based on their formulation
Null Hypotheses and Alternate
Hypotheses

2. Based on direction
Directional and Non-directional
Hypothesis

3. Based on their derivation
Inductive and Deductive Hypotheses

Categorizing Hypotheses
(Cont)
1. Null Hypotheses and Alternate Hypotheses
Null hypothesis always predicts that
no differences between the groups being studied
(e.g., experimental vs. control group) or
no relationship between the variables being studied

By contrast, the alternate hypothesis always
predicts that there will be a difference between
the groups being studied (or a relationship
between the variables being studied)
Categorizing Hypotheses
(Cont)
Alternate Hypothesis can further be
classified as
2. Directional Hypothesis and Non-
directional Hypothesis


Categorizing Hypotheses
(Cont)
2. Directional Hypothesis and Non-directional
Hypothesis

Simply based on the wording of the hypotheses
we can tell the difference between directional
and non-directional

If the hypothesis simply predicts that there will be a
difference between the two groups, then it is a non-
directional hypothesis. It is non-directional because it
predicts that there will be a difference but does not specify
how the groups will differ.

If, however, the hypothesis uses so-called comparison
terms, such as greater,less,better, or worse, then it is
a directional hypothesis. It is directional because it
predicts that there will be a difference between the two
groups and it specifies how the two groups will differ
Categorizing Hypotheses (Cont)
3. Inductive and Deductive Hypotheses(Theory
Building and Theory Testing)
classified in terms of how they were
derived:
- Inductive hypothesis - a generalization
based on observation



- Deductive hypothesis - derived from theory
Theory Hypothesis Observation Confirmation
Observation Pattern Hypothesis Theory
Forming/Developing a
Hypothesis
Articulating the hypotheses that will be
tested is one of the steps in the planning
phase of a research study

A hypothesis is formulated after
the problem has been stated and
the literature study has been conducted

It is formulated when the researcher is
totally aware of the theoretical and
empirical background to the problem

The Initial Idea
The initial idea is the starting point
Often vague or general, it requires refining
before research hypotheses can be generated

Refinement of the initial idea is based on
(1) a search of relevant research
literature
(2) initial observations of the phenomenon

Narrow and formalize the initial idea
into a statement of the problem

Statement of the Problem
In the form of a question that clearly
indicates an expected relationship

The nature of the question will dictate the
required level of constraint of a study
Causal questions will require experimental research
Questions about relationships can be answered with
lower constraint research

Convert into research hypothesis by
operationally defining the variables

In General
Ideas lead to
observations
library research

Then Statement of problem and

Then Problem statements become
research hypotheses when constructs
are operationalized
Operational Definitions
The procedures used to measure
and/or manipulate a variable

Most variables can be operationally
defined in many different ways,

Thus creating many different research
hypotheses from a single statement of
a problem

Hypotheses
States clearly the expected
relationship between the variables

The form is a declarative statement,
but it is a tentative statement to be
tested in research

Implicitly or explicitly, the variables in
the research hypothesis are stated in
operational definition terms

The Role of Theory
In research planning, theory guides
the process

Theory is often the primary source of
research hypotheses

Theory guides the selection of variables as
well as their operational definitions

Most research is based on multiple,
overlapping and interacting theories

Variables
Any factor that can take on different
values is a scientific variable and
influences the outcome of a research.
Examples include
Gender,
Colour,
Country
Weight,
Time,
Height, etc..

Types of Variables
There are many categories of variables

Independent vs. Dependent vs.
Controlled Variables

Categorical vs. Continuous Variables

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Variables


Independent vs. Dependent vs.
Controlled Variables
The independent variable is called independent
because it is independent of the outcome being
measured.
It is what causes or influences the outcome.

The dependent variable is influenced by the
independent variable.

Controlled variables are variables that the scientist
does not want to change during the course of the
experiment


Hence the research includes
finding ways to vary the independent variable
Finding ways to keep the controlled variables from changing and
measure the dependent variable
Categorical vs. Continuous
Variables
Categorical variables are variables that can take on specific values only
within a defined range of values like gender, marital status
consisting of discrete, mutually exclusive categories, such as
male/female, White/Black, etc

Continuous variables are variables that can theoretically take on any value
along a continuum like age, income weight, height etc..

When compared with categorical variables, continuous variables can be
measured with a greater degree of precision.

The choice of which statistical tests will be used to analyze the data is
partially dependent on whether the researcher uses categorical or
continuous variables.

Certain statistical tests are appropriate for categorical variables, while
other statistical tests are appropriate for continuous variables.

As with many decisions in the research-planning process, the choice of
which type of variable to use is partially dependent on the question that the
researcher is attempting to answer.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Variables
Qualitative variables are variables that
vary in kind, like attractive or not
attractive, helpful or not helpful, or
consistent or not consistent

Quantitative variables are those that
vary in amount like height, weight,
salary etc
Summary - Hypothesis Formation
First identify a general area of interest to be researched;
Example: effects of smoking on health

Then identify a research question the research question should be
more narrowly defined (more specific) than the general research
topic.
Example: Does smoking cause lung cancer?

Then operationally define the variables. The researcher is in control
of the independent variable in the experiment. The dependant
variable, however, is merely observed in the context of the
experiment. For an experiment to be valid, it must contain at least
two variables.

Now it is time to formulate the hypothesis in an attempt to answer
the question by making it a conditional statement like
"Smoking may cause lung cancer.

Refine it by writing a formalized hypothesis like "If smoking causes
lung cancer, then individuals who smoke have a higher frequency of
developing the disease." This type of "if-then" hypothesis is
considered the most useful.

Verify that the hypothesis includes a subject group. A subject group
defines who or what the researcher is studying. In the example
above, the subject group is the smokers.

Summary (Cont)
1. Verify that a treatment or exposure is included in the
experiment. A treatment is literally what is being done to
the subject group. In our example, the exposure is smoke
or smoking.

2. Prepare for an outcome measure, which is a
measurement concerned with how the treatment is going
to be assessed. The outcome measure in our smoking
scenario is the frequency of smokers developing cancer
in subject population.

3. Understand your control group. The control group or
placebo is a group similar to the subject group, but this
group does not receive the treatment. It is a population
that the subject group is compared to. In the smoking
example, the control group is non-smokers.

4. Remember: - Hypothesis can be
adjusted/refined/changed as more information is
gathered but before the actual examination/experiment is
carried out.
Hypothesis Testing
All hypothesis tests are conducted the
same way.
The researcher
1. states a hypothesis to be tested,

2. formulates an analysis plan,

3. analyzes sample data according to the
plan, and

4. accepts or rejects the null hypothesis,
based on results of the analysis.

1. State the hypotheses.
Every hypothesis test requires the analyst to state a null and an
alternative hypothesis. The hypotheses are stated in such a way
that they are mutually exclusive. That is, if one is true, the other
must be false; and vice versa.

2. Formulate an analysis plan.
The analysis plan describes how to use sample data to accept or
reject the null hypothesis. It should specify the following
elements.
Significance level.
Often, researchers choose significance levels equal to 0.01, 0.05, or
0.10; but any value between 0 and 1 can be used.
Test method.
Typically, the test method involves a test statistic and a sampling
distribution. Computed from sample data, the test statistic might be a
mean score, proportion, difference between means, difference between
proportions, z-score, t-score, chi-square, etc. Given a test statistic and
its sampling distribution, a researcher can assess probabilities
associated with the test statistic. If the test statistic probability is less
than the significance level, the null hypothesis is rejected.

Hypothesis Testing (Cont..)
Analyze sample data.
Using sample data perform computations called for in the analysis
plan.

Test statistic.
When the null hypothesis involves a mean or proportion, use either
of the following equations to compute the test statistic.
Test statistic = (Statistic - Parameter) / (Standard deviation of
statistic)
Test statistic = (Statistic - Parameter) / (Standard error of statistic)
where Parameter is the value appearing in the null hypothesis,
and Statistic is the point estimate of Parameter. As part of the
analysis, you may need to compute the standard deviation or
standard error of the statistic. Previously, we presented
common formulas for the standard deviation and standard error.

When the parameter in the null hypothesis involves categorical
data, you may use a chi-square statistic as the test statistic.
Instructions for computing a chi-square test statistic are presented
in the lesson on the chi-square goodness of fit test.
P-value. The P-value is the probability of observing a sample statistic as
extreme as the test statistic, assuming the null hypothesis is true.

Hypothesis Testing (Cont..)
Hypothesis Testing
When you want to make statements about
a population, you usually draw samples
How generalizable is the sample-based
finding?
Evidence has to be evaluated statistically
before arriving at a conclusion regarding
the hypothesis
Depends on whether information is
generated from the sample with fewer or
larger observations
Problem Definition
Clearly state the null and
alternate hypotheses.
Choose the relevant test
and the appropriate
probability distribution
Choose the critical value
Compare test statistic
and critical value
Reject null
Does the test statistic fall
in the critical region?
Determine the
significance level
Compute
relevant test
statistic
Determine the
degrees of
freedom
Decide if one-or
two-tailed test
Do not reject null
No
Yes
Steps in Hypothesis
Testing
Basic Concepts of Hypothesis
Testing
The Null and Alternate hypothesis
Choosing the relevant statistical test and
appropriate probability distribution. Depends
on
- Size of the sample
- Whether the population standard
deviation is known or not
Choosing the Critical Value. The three
criteria used are
- Significance Level
- Degrees of Freedom
- One or Two Tailed Test

Significance Level
Indicates the percentage of sample
means that is outside the cut-off limits
(critical value)
The higher the significance level (o)
used for testing a hypothesis, the higher
the probability of rejecting a null
hypothesis when it is true (Type I error)
Accepting a null hypothesis when it is
false is called a Type II error and its
probability is (|)

Significance Level (Contd.)
When choosing a level of significance,
there is an inherent tradeoff between
these two types of errors
Power of hypothesis test (1 - |)
A good test of hypothesis ought to
reject a null hypothesis when it is false
1 - | should be as high a value as
possible

Degree of Freedom
The number or bits of "free" or
unconstrained data used in calculating
a sample statistic or test statistic
A sample mean (X) has `n' degree of
freedom
A sample variance (s
2
) has (n-1)
degrees of freedom

One or Two-tail Test
One-tailed Hypothesis Test
Determines whether a particular population parameter is
larger or smaller than some predefined value
Uses one critical value of test statistic
Two-tailed Hypothesis Test
Determines the likelihood that a population parameter is
within certain upper and lower bounds
May use one or two critical values

Hypothesis Testing
DATA ANALYSIS
OUTCOME
In Population Accept Null
Hypothesis
Reject Null
Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
True
Correct Decision Type I Error
Null Hypothesis
False
Type II Error Correct
Decision
Hypothesis Testing About a Single
Mean
Step-by-Step
1) Formulate Hypotheses
2) Select appropriate formula
3) Select significance level
4) Calculate z or t statistic
5) Calculate degrees of freedom (for t-test)
6) Obtain critical value from table
7) Make decision regarding the Null-
hypothesis

Hypothesis Testing About a
Single Mean - Example 1(2
tailed)
H
o
: = 5000 (hypothesized value of
population)
H
a
: = 5000 (alternative hypothesis)
n = 100
= 4960
o = 250
o = 0.05

Rejection rule: if |z
calc
| > z
o/2
then reject H
o
.
Hypothesis Testing About a
Single Mean - Example 2
H
o
: = 1000 (hypothesized value of
population)
H
a
: = 1000 (alternative hypothesis)
n = 12
= 1087.1
s = 191.6
o = 0.01

Rejection rule: if |t
calc
| > t
df, o/2
then reject H
o
.
Hypothesis Testing About a
Single Mean - Example 3(1
tailed)
H
o
: 5000 (hypothesized value of
population)
H
a
: < 5000 (alternative hypothesis)
n = 50
= 4970
o = 250
o = 0.01

Rejection rule: if then reject H
o
.

Hypothesis Test of Difference
between Means
Mayor of a city wants to see if males
and females earn the same
A random sample of 400 males and
576 females was taken and following
was found




Males Females
Mean $105.70 $112.80
Standard Deviation $5.00 $4.80
Hypothesis Test of Difference
between Means
The appropriate test depends on
- whether samples are from related or
unrelated samples
- whether population standard
deviations are known or not
- if not, whether they can be assumed
to be equal or not
Hypothesis Test of Difference
between Means
In salary example, the null hypothesis is
H
o
:
1
-
2
=c (=0)
H
a
:
1
-
2
=

c
Since we have unrelated samples with known
(for large samples, we can use sample SD as
pop SD) but unequal s the standard error of
difference in means is



32 .
576
) 80 . 4 (
400
5
2 2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2 1
= + = + =

n
s
n
s
S
X X
Hypothesis Test of Difference
between Means
The calculated value of z is


For =.01 and a two-tailed test, the Z-
table value is 2.58
Since is greater than , the
null hypothesis is rejected

19 . 22
) ( ) (
2 1
2 1 2 1
=

=
X X
calc
S
X X
z

Hypothesis Testing of
Proportion
Quality control dept of a light bulb
company claims 95% of its products
are defect free
The CEO checks 225 bulbs and finds
only 87% to be defect free
Is the claim of 95% true at .05 level of
significance ?
So we have hypothesized values
and sample values
Hypothesis Testing of
Proportion
The null hypothesis is H
o
:

p=0.95
The alternate hypothesis is H
a
: p =0.95
First, calculate the standard error of the
proportion using hypothesized values as



Since np and nq are large, we can use the
Z table. The appropriate z value is 1.96

0145 .
225
05 . 95 .
=

= =
n
q p
o o
p
o
Hypothesis Testing of
Proportion
The limits of the acceptance region
are


Since the sample proportion of 0.87
does not fall within the acceptance
region, the CEO should reject the
quality control departments claim

) 978 . , 922 (. ) 0145 . 96 . 1 ( 95 . 96 . 1 = =
p o
p o
Hypothesis Testing of Difference
between Proportions
Manager wants to see if John and
Linda, two salespeople, have the
same conversion
He picks samples and finds that

Sample
size
Number
converted
Proportion
converted
John 100 84 0.84 (= )
Linda 100 82 0.82(= )
Hypothesis Testing of Difference
between Proportions
Are their conversion rates different at 0.05
significance level?
The null hypothesis is H
o
:

The alternate hypothesis is H
a
:
The best estimate of p (proportion of
success)
is

also,


83 . 0
2 1
2 1
=
+
+
=
n n
p n p n
p
l j
.17

= = p q
Hypothesis Testing of Difference
between Proportions
An estimate of the standard error of the
difference of proportions is


The z value can be calculated as


The z value obtained from the table is 1.96
(for ). Thus, we fail to reject the null
hypothesis


053 .

2 1
= + =

n
q p
n
q p
l j
p p
o
38 .

0 ) (
=

=

l j
p p
l j
calc
p p
z
o
The Probability Values (P-value)
Approach to Hypothesis Testing
P-value provides researcher with
alternative method of testing
hypothesis without pre-specifying
o

Largest level of significance at
which we would not reject H
o


The Probability Values (P-value)
Approach to Hypothesis Testing
Difference Between Using o and p-value
Hypothesis testing with a pre-specified
o
Researcher is trying to determine, "is the
probability of what has been observed less
than o?

Reject or fail to reject H
o
accordingly

The Probability Values (P-value)
Approach to Hypothesis Testing
Using the p-Value
Researcher can determine "how unlikely is
the result that has been observed?

Decide whether to reject or fail to reject H
o

without being bound by a pre-specified
significance level

In general, the smaller the p-value, the
greater is the researcher's confidence in
sample findings

The Probability Values (P-value)
Approach to Hypothesis Testing:
Example
H
o
: = 25 (hypothesized value of
population)
H
a
: = 25 (alternative hypothesis)
n = 50
= 25.2
o = 0.7
SE( )= = 0.1; Z= =2

From Z-table, prob Z >2 is 0.0228. As this
is a 2-tailed test, the p-value is 2
0.228=.0456
X
o
n
o
X
X
o

The Probability Values (P-value)
Approach to Hypothesis Testing
Using the p-Value
P-value is generally sensitive to
sample size
A large sample should yield a low p-
value
P-value can report the impact of the
sample size on the reliability of the
results
Relationship between C.I and
Hypothesis Testing (Example 1)
A direct mktr knows that average no of
purchases per month in entire database is
5.6
By sampling loyals he finds that their
average is 6.1(i.e, =6.1)
Is it merely a sampling accident?
H
o
: = 5.6 (hypothesized value of
population)
H
a
: = 5.6 (alternative hypothesis)
n = 35
o = 2.5

Relationship between C.I and
Hypothesis Testing (Example 1)
Std err =0.42

The appropriate Z for =.05 is 1.96
The Confidence Interval is
= (4.78, 6.42)
Since 6.1 falls in the interval, we
cannot reject the null hypothesis

n
X
o
o =
o
X
o 96 . 1
0

Confidence Intervals and
Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing and Confidence
Intervals are two sides of the same
coin.







t = = Interval estimate for


x
x
ts X
s
X

) (

Relationship between C.I and
Hypothesis Testing (Example 2)

Revisit the first example we started with

Test the performance of two lists in terms of
response rates

Sample (1,000) from the first list provides a
response rate of 3.5%

Sample (1,200) from the second list provides
a response rate of 4.5%

Do the two lists (population) really have a
difference or is it an artifact of the sample?
Relationship between C.I and
Hypothesis Testing (Example 2)

C.I. of list 1:
(0.035)+/- 1.96*(SE
1
)
SE
1
= Sqrt[(0.035*0.965)/1000]=0.006
C.I.
1
=(0.0232,0.0467)
C.I. of list 2:
(0.045)+/-1.96*(SE
2
)
SE
2
=Sqrt[(0.045*0.955)/1200]=0.006
C.I.
2
=(0.033,0.0568)
What can we infer based on these confidence
Intervals?
Lack of sufficient evidence to infer that there is any
difference between the response rates in the two
samples.

References
http://www.experiment-resources.com
http://www.ehow.com
http://stattrek.com
http://www.methodspace.com
http://www.aqr.org.uk Association of
Qualitative Research
The books supplied by our instructor