MODULE 1:

Communication Systems
A Communications Model
Basic Communication System
Basic Communication System
Basic components:
Transmitter
Channel or medium
Receiver

Noise degrades or interferes with transmitted
information.


Transmitter
The transmitter is a collection of electronic
components and circuits that converts the electrical
signal into a signal suitable for transmission over a
given medium.

Transmitters are made up of oscillators, amplifiers,
tuned circuits and filters, modulators, frequency
mixers, frequency synthesizers, and other circuits.

Communication Channel
The communication channel is the
medium by which the electronic signal is
sent from one place to another.

Types of media include
Electrical conductors
Optical media
Free space
System-specific media (e.g., water is the medium for
sonar).
Physical Transmission Media
Physical Transmission Media
Receivers
A receiver is a collection of electronic components
and circuits that accepts the transmitted message
from the channel and converts it back into a form
understandable by humans.

Receivers contain amplifiers, oscillators, mixers,
tuned circuits and filters, and a demodulator or
detector that recovers the original intelligence signal
from the modulated carrier.
Transceivers
A transceiver is an electronic unit that
incorporates circuits that both send and
receive signals.

Examples are:
Telephones
Fax machines
Cell phones
Computer modems

Signal Attenuation
Signal attenuation, or degradation, exists
in all media of wireless transmission.

It is proportional to the square of the
distance between the transmitter and
receiver.
Noise
Noise is random, undesirable electronic
energy that enters the communication
system via the communicating medium and
interferes with the transmitted message.
Types of Electronic Communication
Electronic communications are
classified according to whether they
are

1. One-way (Simplex) or two-way (Half
duplex or Full duplex) transmissions.

1. Analog or digital signals.

Simplex
The simplest method of electronic
communication is referred to as simplex.

This type of communication is one-way.
Examples are:
Radio
TV broadcasting
Half Duplex
The form of two-way communication in
which only one party transmits at a time is
known as half duplex.

Examples are:
Police, military, etc. radio transmissions
Walky Talky
HAM radio
Morse Code

Full Duplex
Most electronic communication is two-
way and is referred to as duplex.

When people can talk and listen
simultaneously, it is called full duplex.

The telephone is an example of this
type of communication.
COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM
ANALOG
COMMUNICATION
DIGITAL
COMMUNICATION
Analog Communication
Digital Communication
To be transmitted, data must be transformed to
electromagnetic signals.
Note
Data
Data can be analog or digital.
The term analog data refers to
information that is continuous.
Digital data refers to information that has
discrete states.
Analog data take on continuous values.
Digital data take on discrete values.

Comparison of analog and digital signals
Analog Signal
Cycle
Time
Signal
Amplitude
Frequency = Cycles/Second
A typical
sine wave
Analog Signal
3 Basic Parameters of analog signal
1. Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase
Two signals with the same phase and
frequency, but different amplitudes
Frequency
Frequency is the rate of change of cycle
(Positive and Negative) with respect to time.

Change in a short span of time means high
frequency.

Change over a long span of time means low
frequency.

If a signal does not change at all, its
frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.
Note
Two signals with the same amplitude and
phase, but different frequencies
3 Sine waves with
frequencies 0, 8 & 16
Phase
Phase describes the position of the
waveform relative to time 0.
Note
Three sine waves with the same
amplitude and frequency, but different
phases
Units of period and frequency
Practical Case Composite
Signal
Frequency Spectrum Defined
Available range of frequencies for
communication

Starts from low frequency communication
such as voice and progresses to high
frequency communication such as satellite
communication

The spectrum spans the entire bandwidth of
communicable frequencies
Frequency Spectrum
Low Frequency High Frequency
Radio
Frequency
Coaxial Cable
MHz
Satellite
Transmission
Microwave
GHz
Voice
KHz
Bandwidth Definition
Bandwidth, in general, represents a
range of frequencies
300 MHz 700 MHz
Bandwidth is 400 MHz
Bandwidth and Signal Frequency
The bandwidth of a composite signal
is the difference between the highest
and the lowest frequencies contained
in that signal.

Communication Capacity
Bandwidth is indicative of the
communication capacity

Communication speed is proportional
to bandwidth

Units used to represent bandwidth
are Hz, bps etc.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Figure 1-13: The electromagnetic spectrum.
Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum
Frequency : f [Hertz]
Wavelength: [m]





c : velocity of light: 3 10
8
m/sec

f
1 kHz 3 10
5
m
100 kHz 3 10
3
m
10 MHz 3 10
1
m = 30 m
1 GHz 3 10
-1
m = 30 cm

c
f
=
Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum
Introduction
Topics to be covered
Need for Modulation
What is Modulation?
Types of Modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Angle Modulation
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)


Baseband vs Passband
Transmission
Baseband Signal:- Information bearing Signal
or Message Signal.
The term Baseband refers to the band of
frequencies representing the original signal
obtained from the source (or Base).
Voice (0-4kHz)
TV (0-6 MHz)
A signal may be sent in its baseband format
when a dedicated wired channel is available.
Otherwise, it must be converted to passband.
Need for Modulation
Size of the antenna
For efficient radiation, the size of the antenna should be
/10 or more (preferably around /4 ), where is the
wavelength of the signal to be radiated.
Easy to Multiplex
Several message signals can be transmitted on a given
channel, by assigning to each message signal an
appropriate slot in the channel.
Channel Selectivity
Each station can be assigned a suitable carrier so that
the corresponding program material can be received by
tuning to the station desired.
Need for Modulation
Improved Signal to Noise Ratio
Will be dealt in future lectures

Less Fading of transmitted signal
As the energy of a signal is proportional to its frequency,
fading by the atmospheric particle is less
What is Modulation?
The message signal is called MODULATING
SIGNAL or BASEBAND SIGNAL.

The word modulation means the systematic
alteration of one waveform, called the carrier,
according to the characteristic of another
waveform, the modulating signal or the
message.

We use c(t ) and m(t ), to denote the carrier
and the message waveforms respectively.
What is Modulation?
The resultant signal after modulation is called
MODULATED SIGNAL.

For study purpose, the commonly used carrier
and message signal is SINUSOIDAL WAVE.

Transmitter Side - Modulation
Receiver Side - Demodulation

Definition for Modulation
Modulation is defined as the process
by which some characteristic of a
carrier wave is varied in accordance
with the message signal.

Modulation and Demodulation
Types of Modulation
Modulation - Characteristics of Carrier Wave is
varied in accordance with the characteristics
of message signal.
Consider a Carrier wave:
c(t) = Ac Cos ( )
Instantaneous
Value
Maximum
Amplitude
Angle
( 2fc t + )
Frequency
Phase
Types of Modulation
MODULATION
Angle
Modulation
Amplitude
Modulation (AM)
Phase
Modulation (PM)
Frequency
Modulation (FM)
AM DSB FC
AM DSB SC
SSB
VSB
NBFM
WBFM
NBPM
WBPM
AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
INTRODUCTION
Amplitude Modulation is the simplest and
earliest form of transmitters
AM applications include broadcasting in
medium- and high-frequency applications,
CB radio, and aircraft communications
The information signal varies the
instantaneous amplitude of the carrier

Basic Amplitude Modulation
AM Characteristics
AM is a nonlinear process
Sum and difference frequencies are
created that carry the information
Amplitude Modulation
g(t )= A
c
[ 1+m(t )]
The Complex Envelope of an AM signal is given by
A
c
indicates the power level of AM and m(t) is the Modulating Signal
A
c
[1+m(t)] In-phase component x(t)
If m(t) has a peak positive values of +1 and a peak negative value of -1
AM signal 100% modulated
Representation of an AM signal is given by
() [1()]cos
c c
st Amt t e = +
Envelope detection can be used if % modulation is less than 100%.
An Example of a message signal m(t)
Waveform for Amplitude modulation of the message signal m(t)
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
An Example of message energy spectral density.
Energy spectrum of the AM modulated message signal.
B
2B
Carrier component together
with the message
A
max
- Maximum value of A
c
[ 1+m( t ) ]
A
min
- Minimum value of A
c
[ 1+m( t ) ]
A
c
- Level of AM envelope in the absence of modulation [ i .e . , m( t )= 0]
Definition: The percentage of positive modulation on an AM signal is
||
max
%PositiveModulation 100max()100
c
c
AA
mt
A

==
| |
min
100min()100
c
c
AA
mt
A

=
The percentage of negative modulation on an AM signal is
||||
maxmin
max()min()
%Modulation 100 100
2 2
c
mt mt
AA
A

==
The percentage of overall modulation is
AM Percentage Modulation
If m(t) has a peak positive values of +1 and a peak negative value of -1

AM signal 100% modulated
AM Signal Waveform
A
max
= 1.5A
c
A
min
= 0.5 A
c
% Positive modulation= 50%
% Negative modulation =50%
Overall Modulation = 50%
AM Percentage Modulation
Under modulated (<100%) 100% modulated
Envelope Detector
Can be used
Envelope Detector
Gives Distorted signal
Over Modulated (>100%)
s
2
(t )=
1
2
g(t )
2
=
1
2
A
c
2
[1+m(t )]
2

1
2
A
c
2
[1+2m(t )+m
2
(t )]

1
2
A
c
2
+A
c
2
m(t )+
1
2
A
c
2
m
2
(t )
s
2
(t ) =
1
2
A
c
2
+
1
2
A
c
2
m
2
(t )
AM Normalized Average Power
The normalized average power of the AM signal is
If the modulation contains no dc level, then m(t )= 0
The normalized power of the AM signal is
Discrete Carrier Power Sideband power
AM Modulation Efficiency
Translated Message Signal
Definition : The Modulation Efficiency is the percentage of the total power
of the modulated signal that conveys information.
Only Sideband Components Convey information
Modulation Efficiency:
()
()
2
2
100
1
mt
E
mt
=
+
Highest efficiency for a 100% AM signal : 50% - square wave modulation
Normalized Peak Envelope Power (PEP) of the AM signal:
P
PEP
=
A
c
2
2
{
1+max
[
m(t )
]}
2
Voltage Spectrum of the AM signal:
S( f )=
A
c
2
[

(
f f
c
)
+M
(
f f
c
)
+
(
f +f
c
)
+M
(
f +f
c
)
]
Unmodulated Carrier
Spectral Component
Example 1. Power of an AM signal
Suppose that a 5000-W AM transmitter is connected to a 50 ohm load;
1
2
A
c
2
50
= 5,000A
c
= 707 V
Then the constant A
c
is given by
Without
Modulation
If the transmitter is then 100% modulated by a 1000-Hz test tone ,
the total (carrier + sideband) average power will be
1. 5
[
1
2
(
A
c
2
50
)
]
= (1.5) (5000)= 7, 500W
[
m
2
(t )=
1
2
for 100% modulation
]
The peak voltage (100% modulation) is (2)(707) = 1414 V across the 50 ohm load.
The peak envelope power (PEP) is
4
[
1
2
(
A
c
2
50
)
]
= (4) (5000)= 20, 000W
The modulation efficiency would be 33% since < m
2
(t) >=1/2
Single Sideband (SSB) Modulation
An upper single sideband (USSB) signal has a zero-valued spectrum for
f<f
c
A lower single sideband (LSSB) signal has a zero-valued spectrum for
f>f
c
SSB-AM popular method ~ BW is same as that of the modulating signal.
Note: Normally SSB refers to SSB-AM type of signal
USSB
LSSB
Single Sideband Signal
Theorem : A SSB signal has Complex Envelope and bandpass form as:
g(t )= A
c
[
m(t ) j m(t )
]
m(t ) cos
c
t { m
s (t )= A
c
[(t ) sin
c
t ]
Upper sign (-) USSB
Lower sign (+) LSSB

m( t ) Hilbert transform of m(t)

m(t) m(t ) h(t )
Where
h
(
t
)
=
1
t
H(f )=
[
h(t )
]
j , f >0
j , f <0

H (f )= {

and
Hilbert Transform corresponds to a -90
0

phase shift
H(f)
f
-j
j
Single Sideband Signal
2A
c
M(f ), f >0
0, f <0
G(f )=
{

}
{}
S (f )= A
c
M
(
f f
c)
, f >f
c
0, f <f
c
0, f > f
c
M
(
f +f
c)
, f < f
c
{}{}+A
c
{}{}
Proof: Fourier transform of the complex envelope
G(f )= A
c
M(f )
[
1 jH (f )
]
Using
m(t) m(t ) h(t )
Recall from Chapter 4
V ( f )=
1
2
{
G(f f
c
)+G[ ( f +f
c
)]
}
If lower signs were used LSSB signal would have been obtained
Upper sign USSB
Lower sign LSSB
Upper sign USSB
() () ()
{ }
()
{ }

()
c c
GfAMfjmt AMfjMf ( = =

Single Sideband Signal

2A
c
M(f ), f >0
0, f <0
G(f )=
{

}
{}
( )
( )
( )
,
0,
0,
,
c c
c
c
c
c
c c
Mf f f f
Sf A
f f
f f
A
Mf f f f
>

= +
`
<

)
>


`
+ <

)
SSB - Power
The normalized average power of the SSB signal
s
2
(
t
)
=
1
2
g(t )
2
=
1
2
A
c
2
m
2
(
t
)
+[

m
(
t
)
]
2

m(t )
2
= m
2
(t )
Hilbert transform does not change
power.
SSB signal power is:
s
2
(
t
)
= A
c
2
m
2
(
t
)

1
2
max g(t )
2
=
1
2
A
c
2
m
2
(
t
)
+[

m
(
t
)
]
2

The normalized peak envelope (PEP) power is:

Power gain factor
Power of the modulating signal
Generation of SSB
R(t )=g (t )= A
c

m
2
(t )+
[
m(t )
]
2

(
t
)
= g
(
t
)
= tan
1
[
m(t )
m(t )
]
SSB signals have both AM and PM.
g(t )= A
c
[
m(t ) j m(t )
] The complex envelope of SSB:
For the AM component,
For the PM component,
Advantages of SSB
Superior detected signal-to-noise ratio compared to that of AM
SSB has one-half the bandwidth of AM or DSB-SC signals
AM and FM Modulation
(a) Carrier wave.
(b) Sinusoidal modulating signal.
(c) Amplitude-modulated signal.
(d) Frequency modulated signal.
Angle Modulation
We have seen that an AM signal can be represented as



s(t )= A
c
[ 1+m(t )] cos
c
t
Now we will see that information can also be carried in the angle of the
signal as
Note that in this type of modulation the amplitude of signal carries information.
s (t)= A
c
cos
[

c
t +(t )
]
Here the amplitude A
c
remains constant and the angle is modulated.
This Modulation Technique is called the Angle Modulation
Angle modulation: Vary either the Phase or the Frequency of the carrier signal
Phase Modulation and Frequency Modulation are special cases of Angle
Modulation
Angle Modulation
Representation of PM and FM signals:
The Complex Envelope for an Angle Modulation is given by
g(t )= A
c
e
j (t )
R(t )=g (t )= A
c
Is a constant Real envelope,
(t) - linear function of the modulating signal m(t)
The Angle-modulated Signal in time domain is given by
s (t)= A
c
cos
[

c
t +(t )
]
g(t) - Nonlinear function of the modulation.
Special Case 1:
For PM the phase is directly proportional to the modulating signal. i.e.;

Where D
p
is the Phase sensitivity of the phase modulator, having units of radians/volt.

Special Case 2:
For FM, the phase is proportional to the integral of m(t) so that

where the frequency deviation constant D
f
has units of radians/volt-sec.
Angle Modulation
s(t )= A
c
cos[
c
t +D
p
m(t )]
Resulting PM wave:
Phase Modulation occurs when the instantaneous phase varied in proportion to that of
the message signal.
(t )= D
p
m(t )
Dp is the phase sensitivity of the modulator
Frequency Modulation occurs when the instantaneous frequency is varied linearly
with the message signal.

i
(t )=
c
+D
f
m(t )
(t )= D
f

t
m()d
s(t )= A
c
cos[
c
t +D
f

t
m( ) d ]
Resulting FM wave:
D
f
is the frequency
deviation constant
Instantaneous Frequency (f
i
) of a signal is defined by

i
(t )=
d (t )
dt
(t )=

i
( ) d
where (t )=
c
t +( t )
Phase and Frequency Modulations
Phase Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Comparing above two equations , we see that if we have a PM signal modulated
by m
p
(t), there is also FM on the signal, corresponding to a different modulation
wave shape that is given by:
Similarly if we have a FM signal modulated by m
f
(t),the corresponding phase
modulation on this signal is:

Where f and p denote frequency
and phase respectively.
m
p
(t )=
D
f
D
p

t
m
f
()d
m
f
(t )=
D
p
D
f
[
dm
p
(t )
dt
]
Integrator
Phase Modulator
(Carrier Frequency fc)
Differentiator
Frequency Modulator
(Carrier Frequency fc)
Generation of FM from PM and vice versa
m
p
(t )
m
f
(t )
m
p
(t )
m
f
(t )
s (t )
s (t )
FM Signal
PM signal
Generation of FM using a Phase Modulator:
Generation of PM using a Frequency Modulator:
Gain
f
p
D
D
=
Gain
f
p
D
D
=
FM with sinusoidal modulating signal
The Instantaneous Frequency of the FM signal is given by:
f
d
(t )= f
i
(t ) f
c
=
1
2
[
d(t )
dt
]
The Peak Frequency Deviation is given by: F= max
1
2
[
d(t )
dt
]
The Frequency Deviation from the carrier frequency:
The Peak-to-peak Deviation is given by
F
pp
= max
{
1
2
[
d(t )
dt
]}
min
{
1
2
[
d (t )
dt
]}
F is related to the peak modulating voltage by
F=
1
2
D
f
V
p
V
p
= max
[
m(t )
]
Where
()
() 1
2
i c
dt
ft f
dt
u
t
(
=+
(

If a bandpass signal is represented by:
(t)=
c
t+(t )
FM with sinusoidal modulating signal
f
i
(t )= f
c
+
1
2
[
d(t )
dt
]
But,

V
p
BW


Average Power does not change
with modulation

Average Power=
A
c
2
2
Angle Modulation
Advantages:
Constant amplitude means Efficient Non-linear Power Amplifiers can be used.
Superior signal-to-noise ratio can be achieved (compared to AM) if bandwidth is
sufficiently high.
Disadvantages:
Usually require more bandwidth than AM
More complicated hardware
Modulation Index
The Peak Phase Deviation is given by: = max
[
(t )
]
is related to the peak modulating voltage by: = D
p
V
p
V
p
= max
[
m(t )
]
Where
The Phase Modulation Index is given by:
p
=
Where is the peak
phase deviation
The Frequency Modulation Index is given by:

f
=
F
B
F Peak Frequency Deviation
B Bandwidth of the modulating signal
Spectra of Angle modulated signals
Spectra for AM, DSB-SC, and SSB can be obtained with simple formulas
relating S(f) to M(f).
But for angle modulation signaling, because g(t) is a nonlinear function of m(t).
Thus, a general formula relating G(f) to M(f) cannot be obtained.
To evaluate the spectrum for angle-modulated signal, G(f) must be evaluated on a
case-by-case basis for particular modulating waveshape of interest.
S (f )=
1
2
[
G
(
f f
c
)
+G

(
f f
c
)]
G(f )= [g(t )]=
[
A
c
e
j(t)
]
Where
Spectrum of Angle modulated signal
Spectrum of PM or FM Signal with Sinusoidal Modulating Signal
Assume that the modulation on the PM signal is
m
p
(t )= A
m
sin
m
t
(t )= sin
m
t
Then

p
= D
p
A
m
= Where is the phase Modulation Index.
Same (t) could also be obtained if FM were used
m
f
(t )= A
m
cos
m
t
where
=
f
= D
f
A
m
/
m
F=
1
2
D
f
A
m
The Complex Envelope is:
and
The peak frequency deviation would be
g(t )= A
c
e
j (t )
= A
c
e
jsin
m
t
which is periodic with period
T
m
=
1
f
m
Using discrete Fourier series that is valid over all time, g(t) can be written as
g(t )=

n=
n=
c
n
e
jn
m
t
c
n
=
A
c
T
m

T
m
/ 2
T
m
/ 2
(
e
j sin
m
t
)
e
jn
m
t
dt
Where
c
n
= A
c
[
1
2

e
j (sin n)
]
= A
c
J
n
() Which reduces to
J
n
() Bessel function of the first kind of the nth order
Taking the fourier transform of the complex envelope g(t), we get
J
n
()= ( 1)
n
J
n
()
Is a special property of Bessel Functions
Spectrum of PM or FM Signal with Sinusoidal Modulating Signal
G(f )=

n=
n=
c
n

(
f nf
m
)
or
() ()( )
n
c n m
n
Gf AJ fnf |o
=
=
=

Bessel Functions of the First Kind

J
0
()=0 at =2.4, 5.52 & so on
Bessel Functions of the First Kind
S( t )= A
c

n=

J
n
( ) cos[ (
c
+n
m
) t ]
The FM modulated signal in time domain
From this equation it can be seen that the frequency spectrum of an FM
waveform with a sinusoidal modulating signal is a discrete frequency
spectrum made up of components spaced at frequencies of e
c
ne
m
.
By analogy with AM modulation, these frequency components are called
sidebands.
We can see that the expression for s(t) is an infinite series. Therefore the
frequency spectrum of an FM signal has an infinite number of sidebands.
The amplitudes of the carrier and sidebands of an FM signal are given by
the corresponding Bessel functions, which are themselves functions of the
modulation index
Observations:
Frequency spectrum of FM
Spectra of an FM Signal with Sinusoidal Modulation
B
T
(
S( f )
1
2
A
c
)
f
1.0
The following spectra show the effect of modulation index, |, on the
bandwidth of an FM signal, and the relative amplitudes of the carrier and
sidebands
B
T
J
0
(1.0)
J
1
(1.0)
J
2
(1.0)
(
S( f )
1
2
A
c
)
f
1.0
Spectra of an FM Signal with Sinusoidal Modulation
B
T
(
S( f )
1
2
A
c
)
f
1.0
Spectra of an FM Signal with Sinusoidal Modulation
Although the sidebands of an FM signal extend to infinity, it has been found
experimentally that signal distortion is negligible for a bandlimited FM signal
if 98% of the signal power is transmitted.

Based on the Bessel Functions, 98% of the power will be transmitted when
the number of sidebands transmitted is 1+| on each side.
Carsons rule
(1+|)f
m
Carsons rule
Therefore the Bandwidth required is given by
phase modulation index/ frequency modulation index
B bandwidth of the modulating signal
B
T
= 2(+1)f
m
For sinusoidal modulation B= f
m
Carsons rule : Bandwidth of an FM signal is given by
Note: When =0 i.e. baseband signals B
T
= 2f
m
( )
2 1
T
B B | = +
Narrowband Angle Modulation
Narrowband Angle Modulation is a special case of angle modulation where (t) is
restricted to a small value.
(t )<0.2 rad
The complex envelope can be approximated by a Taylor's series in which only first
two terms are used.
g(t ) A
c
[
1+j (t )
]
g
(
t
)
A
c
e
j
s (t)= A
c
cos
c
t A
c
(t )sin
c
t
[ because e
x
1+x for x<<1] becomes
The Narrowband Angle Modulated Signal is
The Spectrum of Narrowband Angle Modulated Signal is
S (f )=
A
c
2
{[

(
f f
c
)
+
(
f +f
c
)
]
+ j
[

(
f f
c
)

(
f +f
c
)
]}
D
p
M(f ),
D
f
j2f
M(f ).

(f )= [(t )]=
{

where
PM
FM