Introduction to Algorithms

Chapter 16: Greedy Algorithms

Greedy Algorithms

Similar to dynamic programming, but simpler approach

Also used for optimization problems

Idea: When we have a choice to make, make the one that looks best right now

Make a locally optimal choice in hope of getting a globally optimal solution

Greedy algorithms dont always yield an optimal solution Makes the choice that looks best at the moment in order to get optimal solution.

Fractional Knapsack Problem

Knapsack capacity: W

There are n items: the i-th item has value vi and weight
wi

Goal:

find xi such that for all 0 xi 1, i = 1, 2, .., n wixi W and xivi is maximum

Fractional Knapsack - Example

E.g.:
Item 3 Item 2 Item 1 10 $60 $100 $120 30 20

20 $80 --+ 30

50

50
20 $100 + 10

$60
$240

$6/pound $5/pound $4/pound

Fractional Knapsack Problem

Greedy strategy 1:

Pick the item with the maximum value

W=1 w1 = 100, v1 = 2 w2 = 1, v2 = 1 Taking from the item with the maximum value: Total value taken = v1/w1 = 2/100 Smaller than what the thief can take if choosing the other item Total value (choose item 2) = v2/w2 = 1

E.g.:

Fractional Knapsack Problem

Greedy strategy 2:

Pick the item with the maximum value per pound vi/wi If the supply of that element is exhausted and the thief can carry more: take as much as possible from the item with the next greatest value per pound

It is good to order items based on their value per pound

v1 v2 vn ... w1 w2 wn

Fractional Knapsack Problem

Alg.: Fractional-Knapsack (W, v[n], w[n])
1. 2. 3.

While w > 0 and as long as there are items remaining pick item with maximum vi/wi xi min (1, w/wi)

4.
5.

remove item i from list

w w xiwi w the amount of space remaining in the knapsack (w = W) Running time: (n) if items already ordered; else (nlgn)

Huffman Code Problem

Huffmans algorithm achieves data compression by finding the best variable length binary encoding scheme for the symbols that occur in the file to be compressed.

Huffman Code Problem

The more frequent a symbol occurs, the shorter should be the Huffman binary word representing it.

The Huffman code is a prefix-free code.

No prefix of a code word is equal to another codeword.

Overview

Huffman codes: compressing data (savings of 20% to 90%) Huffmans greedy algorithm uses a table of the frequencies of occurrence of each character to build up an optimal way of representing each character as a binary string
C: Alphabet

Example

Assume we are given a data file that contains only 6 symbols, namely a, b, c, d, e, f With the following frequency table:

Find a variable length prefix-free encoding scheme that compresses this data file as much as possible?

Huffman Code Problem

Left tree represents a fixed length encoding scheme Right tree represents a Huffman encoding scheme

Example

Constructing A Huffman Code

// C is a set of n characters

// Q is implemented as a binary min-heap O(lg n) Total computation time = O(n lg n)

O(lg n) O(lg n)

O(lg n)

Cost of a Tree T

For each character c in the alphabet C

let f(c) be the frequency of c in the file let dT(c) be the depth of c in the tree

It is also the length of the codeword. Why?

Let B(T) be the number of bits required to encode the file (called the cost of T)
B(T ) f (c)dT (c)
cC

Huffman Code Problem

In the pseudocode that follows: we assume that C is a set of n characters and that each character c C is an object with a defined frequency f [c]. The algorithm builds the tree T corresponding to the optimal code A min-priority queue Q, is used to identify the two least-frequent objects to merge together. The result of the merger of two objects is a new object whose frequency is the sum of the frequencies of the two objects that were merged.

Running time of Huffman's algorithm

The running time of Huffman's algorithm assumes that Q is implemented as a binary minheap. For a set C of n characters, the initialization of Q in line 2 can be performed in O (n) time using the BUILD-MINHEAP The for loop in lines 3-8 is executed exactly n - 1 times, and since each heap operation requires time O (lg n), the loop contributes O (n lg n) to the running time. Thus, the total running time of HUFFMAN on a set of n characters is O (n lg n).

Prefix Code

Prefix(-free) code: no codeword is also a prefix of some other codewords (Un-ambiguous) An optimal data compression achievable by a character code can always be achieved with a prefix code Simplify the encoding (compression) and decoding Encoding: abc 0 . 101. 100 = 0101100 Decoding: 001011101 = 0. 0. 101. 1101 aabe Use binary tree to represent prefix codes for easy decoding An optimal code is always represented by a full binary tree, in which every non-leaf node has two children |C| leaves and |C|-1 internal nodes Cost:

B(T ) f (c)dT (c)

cC

Depth of c (length of the codeword) Frequency of c

Huffman Code

Reduce size of data by 20%-90% in general

If no characters occur more frequently than others, then no advantage over ASCII
Encoding:

Given the characters and their frequencies, perform the algorithm and generate a code. Write the characters using the code

Decoding:

Given the Huffman tree, figure out what each character is (possible because of prefix property)

Application on Huffman code

Both the .mp3 and .jpg file formats use Huffman coding at one stage of the compression

Dynamic Programming vs. Greedy Algorithms

Dynamic programming

We make a choice at each step The choice depends on solutions to subproblems Bottom up solution, from smaller to larger subproblems

Greedy algorithm

Make the greedy choice and THEN Solve the subproblem arising after the choice is made

The choice we make may depend on previous choices, but not on solutions to subproblems
Top down solution, problems decrease in size