Basic Mechanical Engineering Course

FY Part II 2012

Materials and Processes

www.mit.asia

Structural Metals-Properties
Hardness
Ability to resist abrasion, penetration, cutting or permanent distortion

Brittleness
Property of metal that allows little bending or deformation without shattering

Malleable
A metal that can be hammered, rolled or pressed into various shapes without cracking or breaking

Ductility
Property of metal that allows it to be permanently drawn, bent, or twisted into various shapes without breaking

Elasticity
Property enables metal to return to its original shape when the force which causes the change of shape is removed
2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

Structural Metals-Properties
Toughness
A material that will withstand tearing or shearing and may be stretched without being deformed or breaking

Density
Weight of a unit volume of material

Fusibility
The ability of a metal to become liquid when heated (can be welded)

Conductivity
Property which enables a metal to carry heat or electricity

Contraction & Expansion

Reaction produced in metals as the result of heating or cooling
2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

Structural Metals-Selection Factors

Strength
5 factors effecting strength are tension, compression, shear, bending & torsion

Also required selections:

Weight
Strength/weight ratio is always determined

Reliability
2 important factors are corrosion resistance and workability

www.mit.asia

Structural Metals-Selection Factors

The Prowler was designed with nearly 930 pounds of aluminum - a full 1/3 of the car's weight. Casting and extruding aluminum is less costly than steel, and aluminum places less wear and tear on machine tools, potentially reducing costs related to tool maintenance, repair and replacement.
www.mit.asia

Metal Types
Ferrous Metals
Carbon Steel Nickel Steel Chromium Steel

Nonferrous Metals
Aluminum & Aluminum Alloys Alclad Aluminum Titanium & Titanium Alloys Copper & Copper Alloys Monel Magnesium & Magnesium Alloys
www.mit.asia

2/13/2013

Metalworking Processes
Hot working Cold Working Extruding Welding Brazing/Soldering

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

Heat Treatment
Involves the heating and cooling of metals in the solid state Changes the mechanical properties so the metal can be more useful Metals can be made harder, stronger and more impact resistant or metals can be made softer and more ductile

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

Heat Treatment Methods

(Ferrous Metals)

Hardening Tempering Annealing Normalizing Case hardening

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

Case Hardening
STAGE ONE:
The steel is heated to red heat. It may only be necessary to harden one part of the steel and so heat can be concentrated in this area. (Select Slide
Show)

www.mit.asia

Case Hardening
STAGE TWO: The steel is removed from the brazing hearth with blacksmiths tongs and plunged into case hardening compound and allowed to cool a little. The case hardening compound is high in carbon.
www.mit.asia

Case Hardening
STAGE THREE: The steel is heated again to a red color, removed from the brazing hearth and plunged into cold, clean water. (Select Slide Show)

www.mit.asia

Case Hardening
The steel rod should now have a hardened outer surface and a flexible, soft interior. The process can be repeated to increase the depth of the hardened surface.

www.mit.asia

Heat Treatment Methods

(Non-Ferrous Metals)

Aluminum alloys
Solution heat treatment Precipitation heat treatment

Magnesium alloys
Solution heat treatment Precipitation heat treatment

Titanium
www.mit.asia

2/13/2013

14

Metalworking Practices
Additional notes to remember when working with metals:
The material on the outside of a curve stretches, while the material on the inside of the curve compresses. There is a location near the middle of the metal thickness that neither shrinks nor stretches. This is called the neutral line, or the neutral axis, of the material.
Reference following slide for example of Pure Bending

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

15

Metal Working Practices

Pure Bending Kinematics of pure bending:
When a bar is subjected to a pure bending moment as shown in the figure it is observed that axial lines bend to form circumferential lines and transverse lines remain straight and become radial lines. In the process of bending there are axial line that do not extend or contract. The surface descried by the set of lines that do not extend or contract is called the neutral surface. Lines on one side of the neutral surface extend and on the other contract since the arc length is smaller on one side and larger on the other side of the neutral surface. The figure shows the neutral surface in both the initial and the bent configuration. The axial strain in a line element a distance y above the neutral surface is given by where is the radius to the neutral surface.

y Neutral Surface

-y

lo

l y Neutral Surface

www.mit.asia

Metalworking Practices
Cold working, strain hardening or work hardening of a metal is done by repeatedly applying a mechanical force to the metal. Material Properties & Cold Working
As the percent of Cold Working increases:
Tensile strength - increases Yield strength - increases Ductility - decreases Electrical conductivity decreases Corrosion resistance - decreases

www.mit.asia

Metalworking Practices
A closed angle is and angle that has been bent beyond 90 degrees. For the greatest strength in a bent piece of material, the layout should always be made so that the bend will be perpendicular to the grain of the sheet Note that angle of bend is the angle through which the material has actually been bent. To illustrate, in Fig. 1, the angle on the drawing is 60 degrees, but the angle of bend A is 120 degrees (180 60 = 120); in Fig. 2, the angle of bend A is 60 degrees; in Fig. 3, angle A is 90 30 = 60 degrees.

www.mit.asia

Corrosion - Classifications
Direct chemical attack
Battery acid, residual flux deposits, entrapped caustic cleaning solutions

Electrochemical attack
Requires a medium (usually water) that conducts tiny current of electricity More active metal becomes anodic & less active metal becomes cathodic The greater the difference in electrical potential (dissimilar metals) the greater the corrosion Most common cause of corrosion
2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

19

Corrosion
4 Conditions that must exists before corrosion can occur: (Select Slide Show)
The presence of a metal that will corrode (anode) The presence of dissimilar conductive materials (cathode) which has less tendency to corrode Presence of a conductive liquid (electrolyte) Electrical contact between the anode and cathode

Rust or corrosion that occurs with most metals is a result of the tendency for metals to return to their natural state. Nobel metals like gold and platinum do not corrode since they are chemically uncombined in their natural state. www.mit.asia

Corrosion Dissimilar Metals

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

21

Forms of Corrosion

Intergranular Corrosion
www.mit.asia

Forms of Corrosion

Exfoliation (Intergranular) Corrosion

www.mit.asia

Forms of Corrosion

Uniform Corrosion
www.mit.asia

Forms of Corrosion

Galvanic Corrosion
www.mit.asia

Forms of Corrosion

Concentration Cell Corrosion

www.mit.asia

Forms of Corrosion

Pitting Corrosion
www.mit.asia

Forms of Corrosion

Crevice Corrosion
www.mit.asia

Forms of Corrosion

Filiform Corrosion
www.mit.asia

Forms of Corrosion

Stress Corrosion Cracking

www.mit.asia

Forms of Corrosion

Corrosion Fatigue
www.mit.asia

Forms of Corrosion

Fretting Corrosion
www.mit.asia

Forms of Corrosion

Erosion Corrosion
www.mit.asia

Forms of Corrosion

Dealloying
www.mit.asia

Forms of Corrosion

Corrosion in Concrete
www.mit.asia

Forms of Corrosion

Microbial Corrosion
www.mit.asia

Corrosion-Preventive Maintenance
An adequate cleaning Detailed inspection for corrosion and failure of protective systems Prompt treatment of corrosion and touchup of damaged paint areas Keeping drain holes free of obstruction Daily wipe down of exposed critical areas Making maximum use of protective covers
2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

37

Corrosion Preventive Maintenance

Electroplating Metal Spraying (Metallizing) Parco Lubrizing Anodizing
Anodized surfaces

Alodizing Surface Treatment Protective paint finishes

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

38

CorrosionPreventive Maintenance
Use of Chemical Cleaners When a structure is chemically cleaned the fayed surfaces should be protected to prevent corrosive materials from seeping between the lap joints. This would cause corrosion to form in an area where it is hard to detect. There are two parts to "sealing" faying surfaces: surfaces in contact edges where an electrolyte (chemical or water) could enter Lap joints - Many designs have lap joints in the fuselage skins. If the outside is to remain natural aluminum color, then mask the panel so you can put a chemical conversion coat where the panel is overlapped on the outside.

www.mit.asia

Corrosion Removal
Complete corrosion treatment involves the following:
Cleaning and stripping of the corroded area Removing as much of the corrosion products as practicable Neutralizing any residual materials remaining in pits and crevices Restoring protective surface films Applying temporary or permanent coatings or paint finishes
2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

40

Non-metallic Materials Characteristics (Composites)

Key terms and practices to remember when working with composite materials: The basic two part mix for epoxy matrix material is resin and hardener. One of the best ways of being sure that the matrix resin for a composite repair has been properly mixed is to mix enough extra resin of each batch to make and identical lay up. Pot life is the length of time a catalyzed resin will remain in a workable state. Molds hold the surface in place while materials cure and harden, they are called male/female When replacing honeycomb core material, the ribbon direction of the insert must be the same as the ribbon direction of the original core. You can use a ring (coin) tap test on composite structures. A change in the sound made by the coin being tapped on a piece of composite structure may be caused by damage or by a transition to a different type of internal structure. The strength and stiffness of a properly constructed composite buildup depends primarily on the orientation of the plies to the load direction.
2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

41

Non-metallic Materials Characteristics

(Composites)
Key terms and practices to remember when working with composite materials (continued): Water is the only fluid normally approved for use in machining composite materials. Any other fluid would contaminate the material and prevent subsequent bonding. Hole-filling fasteners such as conventional rivets should not be used in composites structures because of the probability of causing delaminating. When a conventional rivet is driven, its shank expands to completely fill the hole. The force applied by the expanded shank will cause the material to delaminate around the edges of the hole. When repairing damaged fastener holes in composite panels, chopped fibers or flox cane be added to the wet resin to strengthen the repair. Micro-balloons do not add any strength. Superficial scars, scratches, surface abrasions, or rain erosion can generally be repaired by applying one or more coats of a suitable resin, catalyzed to cure at room temperature, to the abraded surface. The preferred way of making a permanent repair to composite structure is to remove damaged area and lay in new repair plies, observing the choices of materials, the overlap dimensions, ply orientation, and curing procedures.

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

42

Composites-Wood Structure
Cellulose Strands Lignin Polymer

Courtesy : Gary Eisenberg; Antelope Valley Community College; Lancaster , CA

www.mit.asia

Advantages of Composites
Stronger and stiffer than metals on a density basis Highly corrosion resistant Outstanding durability Low investment in fabrication equipment

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

44

Advantages of Composites
Non-metallic materials, also known as composite materials, offer many advantages over other materials. Within aerospace markets, where exceptional performance is required but weight is critical, composites continue to grow in importance. Some of the many advantages of composites are: Stronger and stiffer than metals on a density basis Highly corrosion resistant Outstanding durability Low investment in fabrication equipment Illustration of the Delta 7425-9.5 rocket with CONTOUR spacecraft. Photo: Boeing

www.mit.asia

Advantages of Composites
From virtual to real is the track that aircraft follow. Here, the Boeing 787 Dreamliner takes shape. Its fuselage, made of composites, consists of four cylindrical sections. Composites, because of their light weight and strength, are gaining favor as a material for aircraft. The Boeing Co.'s 787 Dreamliner, officially unveiled on July 8, 2007 has become the poster child for composites in aircraft design because the design uses the materials extensively. According to Boeing, composite materials constitute about 50 percent of the aircraft by weight.

www.mit.asia

Composite Materials within the Aerospace Industry

Carbon/graphite Fiberglass Kevlar Thermoset Plastic

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

47

Composite Processes
Wet lay-up Prepreg lay-up Filament winding Press molding Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) Resin Infusion Chopper Gun sprayed materials
2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

48

Composite Processes
Wet Lay Up Process
Epoxy is applied to the carbon fiber. The finished panel will be cut into test samples.

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

49

Composite Processes
BACKGROUND (PREPREG MANUFACTURE, LAY-UP AND CONSOLIDATION) Pre-pegs are thin sheets of fibres impregnated with resin. The most frequently used method of Pre-preg manufacture is the film route, which is illustrated schematically in figure1. Tows of fibre are pulled along a heated bed, where resin films are brought into contact with them on upper and lower surfaces. The thermal field is controlled so as to reduce the resin viscosity sufficiently to allow tow infiltration under the pressure applied via the consolidation rolls and to promote curing . Finally the pre-preg is backed with release film for storage until required for component manufacture.

www.mit.asia

Composite Processes

BACKGROUND (PREPREG MANUFACTURE, LAY-UP AND CONSOLIDATION) Consolidation involves the cutting and stacking of pre-preg layers in a predetermined sequence of fibre orientations within a mould containing release agent and absorption layers. An upper plate is laid on top and this assembly is sealed in a vacuum bag, as shown in figure2. The matrix resin is cured by exposure to a defined combination of temperature and pressure. When the lay-up is heated, the constraint offered by the resin decreases as its viscosity falls. Application of pressure forces the fibres together. Therefore the temperature and pressure cycle affects, not only the fibre volume fraction and void content, but also the fibre distribution and alignment. The fibre alignment characterization technique presented here can be applied to fully cured composite components and to prepreg material.

www.mit.asia

Composite Processes
Filament Winding: Process Technology To begin with, a large number of fibre rovings is pulled from series of creels into bath containing liquid resin, catalyst and other ingredients such as pigments and UV retardants. Fibre tension is controlled by the guides or scissor bars located between each creel and resin bath. Just before entering the resin bath, the rovings are usually gathered into a band by passing them through a textile thread board or stainless steel comb.

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

52

Composite Processes
Press molding Press curing uses heated platens to apply both pressure and heat to the part. Presses, in general, operate at 20 - 1000 psi (140 - 7000 kPa) and up to 600F (320C). Press curing is very economical for flat parts and high production rates. Tooling requires matched die molds for contoured parts. The following steps are used in press molding:
1. Composite material is placed in the mold cavity. 2. Cure monitoring devices are installed. 3. Parts are placed into press and cured. Pressure, temperature, and time are monitored during the cure cycle to ensure curing parameters are met.

Press curing produces high quality parts with low void content.

www.mit.asia

Composite Processes
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) Resin Transfer Molding or RTM as it is commonly referred to is a Closed Mold Process in which reinforcement material is placed between two matching mold surfaces one being male and one being female. The matching mold set is then closed and clamped and a low-viscosity thermoset resin is injected under moderate pressures (50 100 psi typical) into the mold cavity through a port or series of ports within the mold. The resin is injected to fill all voids within the mold set and thus penetrates and wets out all surfaces of the reinforcing materials. The reinforcements may include a variety of fiber types, in various forms such as continuous fibers, mat or woven type construction as well as a hybrid of more that one fiber type. Vacuum is sometimes used to enhance the resin flow and reduce void formation. The part is typically cured with heat. In some applications, the exothermic reaction of the resin may be sufficient for proper cure.

www.mit.asia

Composite Processes
Vacuum Infusion - The Equipment and Process of Resin Infusion The Vacuum Infusion Process (VIP) is a technique that uses vacuum pressure to drive resin into a laminate. Materials are laid dry into the mold and the vacuum is applied before resin is introduced. Once a complete vacuum is achieved, resin is literally sucked into the laminate via carefully placed tubing. This process is aided by an assortment of supplies and materials.
Vacuum infusion provides a number of improvements over traditionally vacuum bagged parts. These benefits include: Better fiber-to-resin ratio Less wasted resin Very consistent resin usage Unlimited set-up time Cleaner Reference following slide for example of this Vacuum equipment and process

www.mit.asia

Composite Processes
In the following example, spiral tubing is used for both the resin feed and the vacuum line. Resin will enter on one side and fill the length of the tubing very quickly. At that point, resin will begin to flow across the laminate. While this approach is simpler to set up, the resin will need to travel across a longer distance. Depending on what materials and equipment are used, this distance becomes a significant factor. However, on the up-side, the inside surface texture of the finished part will be consistent.

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

56

Vacuum Bagging Process

www.mit.asia

Composites-Boeing 777

Courtesy : Gary Eisenberg; Antelope Valley Community College; Lancaster , CA

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

58

Composites B2 Stealth Bomber

Courtesy : Gary Eisenberg; Antelope Valley Community College; Lancaster , CA

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

59

Composites B2 Stealth Bomber

Courtesy : Gary Eisenberg; Antelope Valley Community College; Lancaster , CA

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

60

Composites X-47 Pegasus

Courtesy : Gary Eisenberg; Antelope Valley Community College; Lancaster , CA

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

61

All Composite Pegasus Skin

Courtesy : Gary Eisenberg; Antelope Valley Community College; Lancaster , CA 2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

62

Pegasus Internal Structure

Courtesy : Gary Eisenberg; Antelope Valley Community College; Lancaster , CA

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

63

Pegasus Engine Fit Check

Courtesy : Gary Eisenberg; Antelope Valley Community College; Lancaster , CA

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

64

All Composite Pegasus Tailpipe

All Composite Tailpipe Weighs Only 35 Pounds

Courtesy : Gary Eisenberg; Antelope Valley Community College; Lancaster , CA

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

65

White Knight & Space Ship One

Courtesy : Gary Eisenberg; Antelope Valley Community College; Lancaster , CA 2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

66

Fluid Lines and Fittings

Repair/Replacement of Metal Tube Lines: Rigid and Flex
Layout of Lines (Flex-Hose)
Safety reasons Functional reasons

Fabrication
Types of materials Usage

Proof-Test After Assembly

Hydrostat Pneumostat Leak test Identification

Installation of Flexible Hose Assemblies and regulator panels

Installation of Rigid Tubing

When making an installation of rigid tubing, each run of the tubing must have at least one bend in it to allow for the shifting of the line as it is pressurized. Dents in the heel of a bend in a piece of hydraulic tubing are not acceptable. Dents in other parts of hydraulic tubing are acceptable in their depth is less than 20 percent of the tube diameter.

Metal tubing is sized by its outside diameter and flexible hose by inside diameter on all aerospace vehicles. When installing metal tubing, tension is undesirable because pressurization will cause it to expand and shift www.mit.asia
2/13/2013 67

Fluid Lines

2/13/2013

www.mit.asia

68