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Mars
Mercury
Impact craters are found on any planetary body with a solid surface
Moon
Ida-243
~160
Earth retains the poorest record of impact craters amongst terrestrial planets
Why? Plate tectonics - Erosion Sedimentation - Life Oceans are relatively young and hard to explore
Many impact structures are covered by younger sediments, others are highly eroded or heavily modified by erosion. Few impact craters are well preserved on the surface
Spider, Australia (8.1mi) Brent, Canada (2.4 mi) Meteor Crater, AZ (0.75mi)
Meteor Crater, Arizona, is one the worlds most well known crater. Less than 1 mile across, it was created about 50,000 years ago. Formed by an iron asteroid. Lots of melted droplets and solid pieces of an iron-nickel material have been recovered in the area.
Meteor Crater
1891: Grove Karl Gilbert organizes an expedition to Coon Mountain (old name of Meteor crater) to explore the impact hypothesis. He soon concluded that there was no evidence for impact, and attributes it to volcanism.
1902: Daniel Moreau Barringer secures the mining patents for the crater and the land around it. 1906 & 1909: Barringer writes papers attributing the crater to an impact event. Drilling and exploration continued at great expenses. 1928: Meteor crater becomes generally accepted as an impact crater. An article from National Geographic attributes the impact hypothesis to Gilbert, and fails to mention Barringers work. 1929: Investors decline to provide more funding to continue drilling. Barringer dies of a massive heart attack. 1946: The crater becomes officially Meteor Crater. The Meteoritical Society defines the proper scientific name as the Barringer Meteor Crater.
Impact Observations
Physical:
shape, inverted stratigraphy, material displaced
Geophysical data:
gravity & magnetic anomalies
Observational: Physical
Shape:
circular features Moltke
(2.7 mi) Tycho (53 mi)
Mystery structure #1
Mystery structure #2
Mystery structure #3
Mystery structure #4
Clearwater, Canada
two craters, both 290 Ma
Mystery structure #5
First indication from world wide distribution of ejecta Only field work, drilling, and geophysical data could identify it.
Observational: Physical
Shape:
circular features Moltke
(2.7 mi) Tycho (53 mi)
Inverted Stratigraphy:
first recognized by Barringer (only for well preserved craters)
Meteor Crater
Material displaced:
Solid material broken up and ejected outside the crater: breccia, tektites
Shocked Material:
shocked quartz high pressure minerals
Melt Rocks:
melt rocks may result from shock and friction
Magnetic:
based on variation of magnetic properties of materials
Seismic:
sound waves reflection and refraction from subsurface layers with different characteristics
In dry, unconsolidated sand sound speed may reach 600 miles per hour (mi/h). Solid rock (like granite) can have a sound speed in excess of 15,000 mi/h. The more layers between the surface and the layer of interest, the more complicated the velocity picture.
Impact Modeling
Numerical modeling (i.e., computer simulations) is the best method to investigate the process of crater formation and material ejection
D<Dth
D>Dth
Depth of transient crater function of the energy of impact and the propertiers of the target material Dth= Threshold diameter for transition from simple to complex craters (around 4 km on Earth)
Modeling Examples
Origin of tektites:
expansion plume (vaporized material), solid and melted (e.g., tektites) ejecta
Chesapeake Crater, VA
Marine impact event, about 35 Myr old, with typical inverted sombrero shape due to multi-layer nature of target region: soft sediments + hard rock
Its existence explains several geological features of the area including the saline groundwater and higher rate of subsidence at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay.
Inner basin (the head of the sombrero) is about 25 miles wide - Outer basin (the brim of the sombrero) extends to about 53 miles.
Soft sediments
Hard rock
Chesapeake Crater
Tektites
Central European
North American
Ivory Coast Australasian
Silicate glass particles formed by the melting of terrestrial surface sediments by hypervelocity impact.They resemble obsidian in appearance and chemistry. Few inches in size, black to lime green in color, and aerodynamically shaped.
Concentrated in limited areas on the Earths surface, referred to as strewn fields. Four tektite strewn fields are known: North American @34 Ma (Chesapeake crater) Central European (Moldavites) @ 14.7 Ma (Ries crater) Ivory Coast @ 1 Ma (Bosumtwi crater) Australasian @ 0.77 Ma (unknown crater)
Understanding tektites
1788: Tektites are first described as a type of terrestrial volcanic glass. 1900: F.E. Suess, convinced they were some sort of glass meteorites, coined the term tektite from the greek word tektos, meaning molten. 1917: Meteoriticist F. Berwerth provides the first hint of a terrestrial origin of tektites by finding that tektites were chemically similar to certain sedimentary rocks.
1948: A Sky & Telescope article by H.H. Nininger sustains the hypothesis of a lunar origin of tektites
200
100
-100
-200
Tektites form in typical medium-size impacts in areas with surface sands They tend to be distributed downrange of the impact point Their low water content is due to the thermal evolution of the melt droplets
In summary:
Impact craters are everywhere, even on Earth!
Not every circular structure is an impact crater