DRUM TRAINING PROGRAMME

DISTRIBUTION EQUIPMENT TECHNOLOGY & APPLICATIONS

24th OCTOBER,2007,TORRENT,SURAT

Instrument Transformers

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CONDITION BASED MAINTANANCE OF INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

24th OCTOBER 2007

PRESENTAION BY
G.V.Akre Director Production Hivoltrans Electricals Private Limited Halol, Gujarat,India

INTRODUCTION

-Instrument transformers play vital role in power system and their operational reliability is very important. -There are frequent cases of catastrophic failure of Instrument Transformers. -Explosive failure may cause damages to adjoining equipments causing considerable loss of asset & injuries (sometimes fatal) to the personnel. -Failure of ITs leads to malfunctioning of system protection, controls, instrumentation and costly power outage. Explosive failure is caused as the result of sudden pressure and heat developed due to huge arc formation, burning and vaporisation of oil/paper in small confined space.

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INTRODUCTION

Large population of equipments commissioned during last 2 to 3 decades are ageing out which is cause of concern as the failure of aged CTs is not predictable. -Looking at the consequences of failure, the focus has now changed from Conventional Maintenance to Condition Based Monitoring.

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BATHTUB CURVE

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BATHTUB CURVE

The curve is a general representation of failure pattern of electrical equipments from the initial years of commissioning to the end of operating life. Failure during first few years are usually due to manufacturing defects,transit damages,installation problems,leakages etc as explained in detail ahead. Random failure mode includes failures due to service condition,system switching serges,lightening impulses,ineffective maintenance etc.The rate of failure during this period is quite low. Wearout failures includes natural aging process resulting into dielectric degradation. Failures during this period are sudden and unpredictable.

The failure rate during this period is quite high.This period as experienced by utilities starts after two oct 2007 gva 24 decades.

L1

CATASTROPHIC FAILURE

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Failure

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Pressure buildup in metallic bellow

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HV creepage inside the insulator

Partially burnt primary insulation Fractured insulator

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Factors responsible for failure -Life of IT is expected to be around 20-25 years. -Early failures due to manufacturing defects are low compared to aged out transformers. - Failure of aged out transformers is often sudden and catastrophic. -State of deterioration in such equipments has to be properly diagnosed and timely action be taken. Following factors are some of the main causes responsible for degradation ofoct 2007 gva insulation. 24

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Factors responsible for failure Manufacturing defects Residual Moisture-inadequate drying of insulation Over stressing- electrical stress Partial Discharges Dielectric loss overheating of insulation Selection of R.M. Improper insulation design Overheating due to I2R loss in primary Poor quality control Poor hermetic sealing -moisture ingression -air ingression
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FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR FAILURE

Service Condition Mishandling and damage during transit/installation Contacts of terminal connectors Unattended leakages-moisture ingress Leakage of N2 gas Leakages through aged out pressure release device Old installation, frequent interruption / overcurrents Lightening and switching surges Ferroresonance Polluted atmosphere Poor maintenance program

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FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR FAILURE

Natural Ageing thermal, mechanical and chemical are continuously acting on paper and oil insulation. -The stresses cause the natural aging process of degradation of insulation.

-Stresses like dielectric, electromechanical,

-THE EFFECT OF ABOVE FACTORS ON INSULATION SYSTEM IS EXPLAINED IN DETAIL AS FOLLOWS.

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DEGRADATION PROCESS OF INSULATION Oil impregnated paper (OIP) is standard and proven insulation system used in design of HV equipments. The combination has much more better insulation strength. Insulation paper is made from cellulose fibre. Paper is very hygroscopic by nature & readily absorbs moisture from the surrounding. Aging is influenced by degradation of cellulose and oil as the result of different stresses. Aging accelerate in presence of oxygen and moisture.
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DEGRADATION PROCESS OF INSULATION Thermal degradation causes oxidation & reduces strength of paper (degree of polymerization). Degrdetion process produces mainly H2, CO2, CO, Methane (CH4), H2O, acids and sludge. Water formed acts as catalyst to accelerate further degradation Oxygen mainly affects the oil causing oxidation
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DEGRADATION PROCESS OF INSULATION

Effects Production of components like H2, CO2, CO, methane, H2O,sludge and acids Reduces tensile strength of paper (degree of polymerization) Affects resistivity & insulation properties of oil & paper Increases tan delta, which in turn increases dielectric heating Tan delta of 0.5% produces 20 watts in 245 kV insulation & 100 watts in 420 kV CT insulation as dielectric loss(heat loss)
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DEGRADATION PROCESS OF INSULATION

With low dissipation rate of heat, there may be thermal breakdown of insulation. Thus, it can be seen that presence of moisture and O2 can cause speedy degradation of insulation. A poorly dried transformer with higher moisture content and gas (particularly O2) drastically reduces life expectancy. Initial moisture and O2 causes early degradation reducing life expectancy. A well-dried but leaking transformer can easily absorb moisture & O2 from atmosphere.
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MOISTURE TRANSITION BETWEEN OIL & PAPER INSULATION

- Moisture present in CT is absorbed by paper and oil in a proportion depending on temperature - There is always equilibrium between moisture in cellulose of paper and oil in an insulation system at any given constant temperature. - With change in temp, the equilibrium is disturbed and transition of moisture takes place between oil & paper. - At higher temperature, the water absorption in oil increases and that of paper reduces
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MOISTURE TRANSITION cont.

- As temperature reduces moisture migrates from oil to paper. - It is also established that oil to paper migration is faster than that from paper to oil - During sunny days with higher loads, temp is high and migration of water takes place from paper to oil - During cool nights the reverse takes place & moisture migrates from oil to paper - With high variations in the temperature the concentration of the moisture in any of the media may become critical and break down may take place.
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Moisture equilibrium in OIP insulation

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MOISTURE TRANSITION

contd.

Illustration from the experimental graph. - At 60C with moisture of 20 ppm in oil, the paper contains 2.5% moisture by weight - At 20C with moisture of 20 ppm in oil, the paper cancontain 7% of moisture by weight. - The paper with higher percentage of total moisture present in CT may cause reduction of dielectric strength significantly and leads to insulation breakdown. - Above experimental finding is also experienced by fact that max failures are taking place during cool nights of hot summers in India,when max variation in temp takes place.
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MOISTURE TRANSITION cont. Thus, it is important to observe following:

- In new transformers,the the paper and oil must be perfectly dried to minimise the initial moisture content. (preferably 5 ppm in oil and max 0.5% in paper.) The moisture accelerate the degradation process during initial years. - ITs are minimum oil equipment and oil is not changed during its lifetime,hence the must be hermetically sealed,preferably with metallic bellows. - If nitrogen cushioned sealing is provided, the required pressure should be monitored and maintained during operating life. - Leakages must be attended immediately. Even minor leakage can absorb substantial moisture and O2 from atmosphere in course of time. - With above precautions, the risk of absorption of external moisture will be minimum. 24 oct 2007 gva 23

DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND CONDITION MONITORING

Condition monitoring may be defined as a process of monitoring the characteristics during operation of equipment and find out the changes and trends of the characteristics of the insulation system which can be used to predict the need for maintenance before serious deterioration occurs.

Thus it determines the health of the equipment and routine maintenance can be rescheduled as required.This reduces the unnecessary cost of maintenance.
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 Electrical Diagnostic Tests Test for Insulation Resistance Polarization Index Tan Delta and Capacitance Measurement Resistivity, tan and BDV of oil Partial Discharge Test on site Chemical Analysis

Diagnostic tests

Other Tests and Inspection Infrared Thermograph Visual inspection for leaks, polluted insulators, corona discharges.
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(A) -Test for Water content -Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) -IFT (B) -Degree of Polymerization (DP) -Furan Analysis

 Insulation Resistance Test Initial screening test for equipments. To use high range 1000,000 m, 5 to 10 kV IR tester Test during fair weather condition. Frequency of test may be high for better results. Gives initial warning to engineers to decide further investigation. Normally useful for medium and low voltage trans upto72.5 kV. Polarization Index

Ratio of IR values at end of 600 seconds and 60 seconds. Possible only with high range meggar. Value of 1.3 to 2.0 indicates good insulation for instrument transformers.
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Tan and capacitance Test One of the best diagnostic test to monitor insulation condition. Concept of tan can be explained by considering insulation as capacitor. An ideal capacitor carries only capacitive current (Ic) which leads the voltage by 90. But actual capacitor formed by transformer insulation conducts resistive current (Ir) due to moisture and impurities. The resultant current (I) is vectorial sum of Ic and Ir and leads voltage by slightly less than 90. The angle between Ic and I is called loss angle and tangent called tan .

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Tan-delta Test Higher tan indicates degraded insulation. Comparison between periodic measurements reveal trend in deterioration of insulation. Increase in tan may be due to Moisture, contaminated oil, internal PDs etc. Rise in tan with rise in voltage indicates high moisture /deterioration and steeper rise indicates major defects. Higher tan increase dielectric losses producing losses and heat, thus causing more degradation. Normal value for new CTs can be 0.15 % to 0.4%

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Tan-delta Test --cont.. Old equipment with more than 0.8% should be closely monitored. Higher tan produces higher dielectric loss and if paper-oil insulation do not dissipate the heat it will lead to thermal breakdown. Partial Discharge Test at Site More advanced site testoff line or online. -Direct online method receives signals from PF terminal of CT. -Signals are mixed with unwanted external discharges. -Special filters and microprocessor base instruments for separating internal discharges from external. -Identifies fault in insulation.
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Resistivity, tan and BDV ,IFT,Acid Number of oil Tan-delta increase indicates oxidation,contamination and suspended water particals. Low BDV indicates moisture, contamination due to oxidation. Low resistivity indicates presence of suspended water, acidic oxidation etc. -Decrease in Resistivity with increase in tan indicates soluble contaminants and aging. -Satisfactory resistivity at 90 compared with low resistivity at ambient temperature indicates moisure. IFT detects contaminants and oxidation products in insulating oils.
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CHEMICAL ANALYSIS TESTS

Water Content Test water content in oil should be less than 10 ppm, target to be 5ppm. High content results into lower BDV and higher tan and conductivity. Moisture in oil may provide some information about moister content in paper insulation, but it may not be always true.Temperature at which samples taken is important due toTransition Theory of mosture Above tests in addition to DGA and Furan can give more reliable information about insulation condition.
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 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

- Detection of incipient faults in equipment.

Incipient faults cause PDs, Corona, & Arching and generates heat with very high range of temperatures in affected section. Oil and cellulose insulation decomposes and produces different gases at different temperatures. Significant gases due to oil decomposition are H2, methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), ethylene (C2H4)and acetylen(C2H2). CO2, CO and O2 are produced as the result of degradation of cellulose during aging process and due to hotspot in insulation.
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Dissolve Gas Analysis

-- cont

IEC 60599, IEEE C. 57.104 and other standards provides method to establish nature of faults on basis of gasses generated. By taking periodic tests, trend in degradation of insulation can be determined. In hermetically sealed ITs,the oil movement is very slow and the dissolve gas may move to sample collection point after several days. Hence the test results may not give the status of present insulation condition.
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Degree of Polymerization Measurement (IEC 450) DP Determines thermal aging of solid cellulose insulation. Quality of cellulose is measured in DP. Measures indicate tensile strength of paper. New Kraft paper has DP = 1000 to 1500. With long service DP maybe = 200 to 250. DP value of 150 to 200 indicates mechanical strength of only 20% of initial strength and is considered to be the end of insulation life. Most accurate test, but sample of paper must be obtained which is impossible for IT. Use to verify remaining life of the equipment. May be performed to establish cause of failure in failed equipments.
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Furan Analysis Furans form as degradation product of solid insulation and are soluble in oil. Furan analysis is performed by drawing sample from oil from operating transformer. Easy test as compared to DP test as transformer is not required to be opened. Interpretation of results are not as reliable as DP. No universal correlation established between DP and Furan yet. Furan analysis, DGA Test & DP Test combined offers very reliable conclusion.

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MAINTENANCE PROGRAM

1.

2. 3.

4.

A simple program may be devised for condition monitoring by users as under: Regular measurement of IR, PI, Tan, and capacitance be made at suitable intervals in fair dry weather and recorded.Their correlation can be determined. The variations from each periodical test be recorded in a computerized database and the trend of deterioration determined. If the trend is indicative of progressive deterioration, then oil sample should be drawn for Moisture content,IFT,Acid numbers, DGA and Furan test. If oil tests confirm the deterioration, the instrument transformer should be removed from services as early as possible to avoid catastrophic failure. 24 oct 2007 gva 37

Maintenance program cont.

For small and medium voltage equipments where population is in thousands, IR, PI, Tan tests may be taken as indicator to replace them. The transformer up to 145 kV may be sent for reconditioning to departmental workshop. The transformers of 245 kV and above should be sent for further investigations to manufacturer of instrument transformers where Partial Discharge test and tan-delta at operating voltage can be performed. The transformer may be re-processed only if there is reasonable remaining life left. For 420 kV class transformers, where population is not high comparatively, should be regularly tested on-site for Moisture, DGA and Furan along with electrical tests listed in step 1.
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ONLINE CONDITION MONITORING

As a result of compelling need felt by many utilities, online monitoring systems have been developed for transformers in more advanced countries to avoid unexpected failures. On-line monitoring of critical network assets provides information previously unavailable. This in turn allows better asset management. It is fast maturing into a serious and reliable network tool. Normally dissipation factor and partial discharge tests are conducted on line using specially developed instruments. Technique of on-line monitoring of DGA and evolved gases is also developed, however it is mostly used for very costly equipments like power transformers presently.
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ONLINE CONDITION MONITORING--cont

The key advantages are: 1. Relevant data collected and made visible on network. 2. Major help in delaying routine maintenance as long as possible hence driving down costs. 3. Costly and not easy to replace equipments are prime candidates for on-line monitoring. 4. Damage to the asset is minimized. 5. Equipment need not be taken out of service
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 Infrared systems can measure temperature of exposed parts of equipment online. Can be used on routine basis by maintenance engineers. Infrared thermal imaging system is a technique involving infrared camera, software and computer. Camera senses infrared radiation from heated components of equipment in yard. A computer processes this information and displays the images of components with different colors depending upon the temperatures. By comparing the difference in similar parts in the equally loaded CTs in different phases, abnormally heated component is pointed out. Further investigation, corrective action is taken avoiding further damages.
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INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY

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CONCLUSIONS The degradation and subsequent failure of transformers is the result of aging of cellulose from paper insulation at elevated temperatures. Use of proper material and best manufacturing practice is the first step to minimize the degradation of insulation. However, for the instrument transformer to live its full life of 25-30 years, it is important to adopt efficient maintenance management by monitoring the condition of insulation at site by the user.
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Conclusions
In our country, very few utilities may be using some or all of the diagnostic techniques. Therefore, increased awareness and adoption of these essential techniques is highly desirable Effective condition-based maintenance practices for substation plant assets will result in reduced controllable operating costs and improved utility performance. Proper investigations and analysis of failure of the equipments, carried out worldwide has resulted into improvement in electrical equipment design. It has also revised systems and developed new equipments for health monitoring.
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CONTD Presently On-line monitoring is becoming main focus area for utilities mainly in developed countries to evolve new techniques for reliable operation of power equipments.

It is highly desirable that the utilities and equipment manufacturers in our country have collaborative efforts in bringing together the resources in form of their experiences/data on failures, ideas, personnel, skill and fund to have common guidelines on the subject of condition monitoring.

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HIVOLTRANS

THANK YOU
G.V.AKRE
HIVOLTRANS ELECTRICALS PRIVATE LIMITED, GUJARAT,INDIA.

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RATIO TEST

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Processinfg of Insulation MOISTURE IN PAPER AND OIL 1) Paper = 3 - 7 % Moisture After drying - < 0.5% Moisture. 2)Raw Oil = 30 - 55 ppm Moisture After Processing- < 10 ppm of moisture. 3)Processed Oil BDV = 65-70kV. Oil from Inst trans. = 45 - 55 kV. 4)Gas in Oil apprx.10% to 12 % After Processing and Degassing - 0.1% Gas Content. 24 oct 2007 gva

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Design of S class meterin CTs

0.5S AND 0.2S CLASS CTs

These special class metering CTs require the stipulated accuracy limits to be maintained upto 1% of the operating primary current. Normal CTs require this limit to 5% of primary current. IS 2705, 1992 specifies these CTs for 5 Amps secondary current and ratios of 25/5, 50/5, 100/5 & their decimal multiples. However, IEC in their amendment in 2002,included 1.0 Amp CT but with observation that there is uncertainty in accuracy measurement at low current.
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0.5S AND 0.2S CLASS CTs

The design criteria for accuracy is same as discussed but the flux density at 1% of the load current falls well below ankle point. The behavior of magnetic materials below ankle point is very erratic. To design core for errors within limit, the operating flux density has to be reduced, which increases the core cross-section Nickel-Iron cores must be used for low current CTs (below 100/1) which nearly costs 20 times than that of CRGO. Even in case of high ratio CTs of 145 kV and above ni-iron core is ued due to limitation in operating amp-turns as system fault current limits numberoct 2007 gva 24 of turns.. 53

Voltage Factor
The voltage factor is dependent upon the system earthing condition. To achieve high VF core flux density has to be reduced substantially, which increases the cost. Adequate VF must be provided OR there is danger of failure during fault on the system which produce transients of high voltage nature. VTs with low VF are prone to Ferro-resonance under favorable conditions. Under fault conditions in isolated neutral system, the voltage appearing across open delta winding is 3 times the rated sec voltage.
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Instrument Security factor (ISF)

It is desirable that the ISF should be as low as practicable such that the metering core saturates during fault current. The secondary current is restricted due to saturation and the instrument connected does not get damaged at fault current. Multiple ratio CT with ratio selection by primary reconnection can have same ISF for all ratios as secondary turns are same on all ratios. For CTs with secondary taps, same ISF on all ratios cannot be obtained. In such CTs, if ISF is specified on lowest ratio, same should be proportionately high on higher tappings.
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Instrument Security factor (ISF)

ISF has direct relation with VA burden connected. If ISF of 5 is assigned at 30 VA, and actual burden is 10 VA, ISF will be modified to 15. If actual burden is too low there may be burning of instrument connected. However, it is important to note that all the meters are capable of carrying 10 Amp for 5 sec. as confirmed by the meter manufacturers. Thus it can carry 22 Amps for 1 sec. ISF of 5 on higher taps on multi-ratio CT means proportionally less ISF on lower taps.This will require very costly Nickel Iron cores.
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RECONDITIONING OF INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

Life may be increased by reprocess if life of insulation is not over. Purpose clean insulation of carbon particles, wax, etc. Replace components like gaskets, pitted terminals, explosion vents, secondary terminals. Remove moisture, replace degraded oil. Improve IR, Oil Resistivity, etc. Process Remove all oil, dismantle and reassemble with parts as above. Heat the trans in oven for 24 hours at around 80-90 dgree under vacuum. Fill fresh treated hot oil (65-75 deg.cent)under vacuum so as to penetrate the bulk of insulation. After 24 hrs, remove this oil which washes out trapped oil in insulation. Repeat the process twice or thrice by observing drained oil for color, BDV. Treat the washed equipment in oven under vacuum at 70 80 C for sufficient time depending upon voltage class.(3 to 7 days for 33 kv to 220 kV) Remove finally the oil residue before filling finally with dry hot oil.
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Heat Loss due to tan-delta

Dielectric Dissipation Factor If an alternating voltage V of frequency f is applied across an insulation system comprising capacitance C and equivalent series loss resistance RS, then the voltage VR across RS and the voltage VC across C due to the resulting current I are: VR = IRS VC = IXC V = (VR2 + VC2) The dielectric dissipation factor of the insulation system is the tangent of the dielectric loss angle d between VC and V: tand = VR / VC = RS / XC = 2pfCRS RS = XCtand = tand / 2pfC Note that an increase in the dielectric losses of a insulation system (from an increase in the series loss resistance RS) results in an increase in tand. Note also that tand increases with frequency. The dielectric power loss P is related to the capacitive reactive power QC by: P = I2RS = I2XCtand = QCtand
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A)ELECTRICAL POWER RESEARCH INST. (EPRI-1) EPRI has sponsored extensive research targeted at understanding the dynamic behavior and effects of moisture in transformer insulation systems. High Voltage Instrument Transformers & Bushings A project has been completed to monitor a large number of HVCTs and bushings in laboratories and in service, including on-line tan delta, partial discharge (pd) and other available monitoring methods. Units were tested to failure to evaluate failure modes, sensitivity of monitoring and to develop "end-of-life" criteria for interpretation of field monitoring data.
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EPRI-4
About the Electric Power Research Institute The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), with major locations in Palo Alto, California, and Charlotte, North Carolina, was established in 1973 as an independent, nonprofit center for public interest energy and environmental research. EPRI brings together members, participants, the Institute's scientists and engineers, and other leading experts to work collaboratively on solutions to the challenges of electric power. These solutions span nearly every area of electricity generation, delivery, and use, including health, safety, and environment. EPRI's members represent over 90% of the electricity generated in the United States. International participation represents nearly 15% of EPRI's total research, development, and demonstration program.
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Oil tests significance-1/3

Significance of the key parameters Gas concentration/development: Tells us the actual condition and performance of the transformer. Faults such as corona, arcing, hot spots, partial discharges. (IEC 60599) Acid Number (TAN): Acidic compounds in the transformer oil. Yields information on the deterioration level (acidic byproducts) of the oil and cellulose. (IEC 60296) Water content: Tells us how critical the condition of the cellulose is. High water content results in lower breakdown voltage which in turn can cause partial discharges. (IEC 60814) Particle Content: Particles can cause accelerated wear and reduction in breakdown voltage (ISO 4406) Anti-oxidants: Inhibitor that prevents oxidation. The residue tells us how deteriorated the oil is. Produces water. BHT (or DBPC) (IEC 60666) Temperature: Tells us something about the actual load. Figures should be compared with a gas analysis. High temperature + presence of acetylene is an indication of a faulty transformer.

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Oil test significance-2/3

Breakdown Voltage: Tells us something about oil electrically conduction contamination (particles, sludge, water). Particles may be wet cellulose fibers. Low dielectric breakdownvoltage indicates the presence of electrically conductive contaminants in oil. (IEC 60156) Tangens delta (power factor): Gives information on dielectric losses. Important to new oil quality as well as regenerated oil. The dissipation factor is a measure of the power lost when an electrical insulating liquid is subjected to an ac field. The power is dissipated as heat within the fluid. A low-value dissipation factor means that the fluid will cause little of the applied power to be lost. The test is used as a check on the deterioration and contamination of insulating oil because of its sensitivity to ionic contaminants. (IEC 60247) Content,

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Oil test significance-3/3

- Surface Tension (IFT): Gives information on the level of impurities in the oil. Interfacial tension and acid number (sometimes called neutralization number or acidity) are affected by oxidation and contamination. IFT is an excellent means of detecting oil-soluble polar contaminants and oxidation products in insulating oils. (ISO 6295) - Furfuraldehyde (Furans): Oil soluble oxidation products from degradation of cellulosic insulation. Can be used to estimate the DP-value (IEC 61198) - Color/Appearance: General indicator of the condition of the oil. (ISO 2049) - Degree of Polymerisation: Mechanical strength of cellulose. - Other parameters: Flaming point, Density, Viscosity, Pour Point, Resistivity, Sulfur

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From www.sayedsaad.com /highvoltage/- In practical applications liquids are normally used at voltage stresses of about 5060 kV/cm when the equipment is continuously operated. On the other hand, in applications like high voltage bushings, where the liquid only fills up the voids in the solid dielectric, it can be used at stresses as high as 100200 kV/cm.

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From http://www.usbr.gov/power/data/fist/fist3_30/fist3_30.pdf

It should be noted that small amounts of H2, CH4, and CO are produced by normal aging. Thermal decomposition of oil-impregnated cellulose produces CO, CO2 , H2, CH4, and O2. Decomposition of cellulose insulation begins at only about 100 C or less. Therefore, operation of transformers at no more than 90 C is imperative. Faults will produce internal hot spots of far higher temperatures than these, and the resultant gases show up in the DGA.

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http://www.usbr.gov/power/data/fist/fist3_30/fist3_30.pdf
a)4.6.2 Interfacial Tension (IFT). This test (ASTM D-791-91) [21], is used by DGA laboratories to determine the interfacial tension between the oil sample and distilled water. The oil sample is put into a beaker of distilled

water at a temperature of 25 C. The oil should float because its specific gravity is less than that of water, which is one. There should be a distinct line between the two liquids. The IFT number is the amount of force (dynes) required to pull a small wire ring upward a distance of 1 centimeter through the water/oil interface. (A dyne is a very small unit of force equal to 0.000002247 pound.) Good clean oil will make a very distinct line on top of the water and give an IFT number of 40 to 50 dynes per centimeter of travel of the wire ring. -As the oil ages, it is contaminated by tiny particles (oxidation products) of the oil and paper insulation. These particles extend across the water/oil interface line and weaken the tension between the two liquids. The more particles, the weaker the interfacial tension and the lower the IFT number. The IFT and acid numbers together are an excellent indication of when the oil needs to be reclaimed. It is recommended the oil be reclaimed when the IFT number falls to 25 dynes per centimeter. At this level, the oil is very contaminated and must be reclaimed to prevent sludging, which begins around 22 dynes per centimeter. See FIST 3-5 [20]. -If oil is not reclaimed, sludge will settle on windings, insulation, etc., and cause loading and cooling problems discussed in an earlier section. This will greatly shorten transformer life.
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 Fault processes such as arcing, pyrolysis and partial discharge differ tremendously in their energy content. Partial discharge is the lowest energy process and will characteristically produce significant amounts of only hydrogen. Thermal processes (pyrolysis) will produce methane, ethane, ethylene, as well as hydrogen. Arcing will produce all of the fault gases. It is the only fault process that will produce acetylene.

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IFT
IFT Significance: The magnitude of the IFT is inversely related to the concentration of the hydrophilic degradation products from the deterioration of the oil. Since the hydrophilic materials are usually highly polar and thus not very soluble in the non-polar oil, the presence of these species can result in sludge formation. These materials that remain dissolved in the oil can affect the desired electrical properties of the oil. They will reduce the dielectric strength and increase the dissipation factor of the oil. Sludge buildup can also affect the heat transfer characteristics of the oil by slowing or perhaps even blocking circulation of the oil.
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IFT There is usually an inverse relationship between the neutralization number of an oil and its IFT. As an oil sample undergoes oxidative degradation, its neutralization number will increase while its IFT value will decrease. It should also be recognized that a decrease in the IFT does not imply that the acidity must also be high, since there are other non-acidic contaminants that could be present in the oil that are hydrophilic and will lower the IFT but not raise the acidity. An example of such a situation might be that of a free breathing transformer near salt water where a salt water mist might be able to enter the unit. Such an event will not affect the acidity but would markedly affect the IFT and dielectric strength of the oil.
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Correlations- insulation tests

CT No. IR Value 10 min. M MAIN INSULATION PI tan %

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

34,000 21,400 72,000 28,000 39,000 43,000 67,000 33,000 1640,000

1.619 1.685 2.075 1.333 1.393 1.536 2.018 1.571 2.485

3.84 5.70 2.05 4.75 4.01 2.50 2.93 3.24 0.36

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- Cross section selected considering rated thermal current and short time current requirement - Example : Ratio = 150 / 1, STC = 40 KA / 1.0 Sec Cross Section for 150 A = 150 / 1.65 = 91 mm2 Cross Section for 40 KA / 1.0 sec = 40000/180 = 223 mm2 Thus, Primary Winding section required = 223 mm2 - Heat generated (I2R) due to passage of STC is not dissipated stored as latent heat - Temp is increased momentarily before dissipation - Design should absorb such heat shocks - STC current peaks are approx 2.5 times RMS value - Peak current (say 100 KA) develops high mechanical forces inside primary winding - Primary must be reinforced to withstand such dynamic 71 24 oct 2007 gva forces

PRIMARY WINDING OF CT

REFERENCES-1
References: Internal Insulation Failure Mechanism of HV Equipment under Service Condition GIGRE, Session 2002, by A.K. Lakhanin, V.V.Sokolov. IEEE Guide for Interpretation of Gases Generated in oil immersed transformers. Std. C.57.104-1991 Review of Modern Diagnostic Techniques for Assessing Insulation Condition of Aged Transformers. By Tapan K. Saha. Diagnostics of Paper and Oil CT Insulation CIGRE International Conference on large H.V. Electrical Systems 1998. Live Assessment of Transformers By M.J. Patel, ERDA. B.Buereschaper, O.Kleboth - Lugova and T.Leibfried. The electrical strength of transformer oil in a transformer board-oil system during moisture non-equilibrium. Terry Krieg, ElectraNet SA, Jeff Benach, AVO International.
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REFERENCES-2
Managing High voltage current Transformers and Bushings using On-Line Insulation Monitoring Technique. The AVO SOS system is designed to provide continuous online monitoring of insulation condition by comparative measurement of insulation capacitance and dielectric dissipation factor. Powerlink Queensland, Australias research and development (R&D) team developed innovative condition-monitoring techniques. Initially, the team produced the Instrument Transformer Testing Device (ITTD), which led to the development of the continuous online monitoring system in the early 1990s. LCMSEA- Life Cycle Management of Substation Equipment and Apparatus Interest Group of CEA Technologies Inc (CEATI). CEATI is focused on coordinating research and cost-sharing efforts among electrical utilities. It has published research report on Instrument Transformer Condition Assessment and Diagnostics. The interest group has sponsored the report which consists of literature review and worldwide survey of utilities to identify the best practice) http:// www.ceatech.ca/psearch.php.
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