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THE SIX DAYS OF CREATION

Biblical Wisdom and Scientific Understanding Reunited

Presentation created by Sarah Salviander, Ph.D., 2013 SixDay Science, LLC Inspired by The Science of God by Gerald L. Schroeder, Ph.D. This presentation may not be copied, in whole or in part, without written permission by SixDay Science, LLC. Image and photo credits appear at the end.

This is astronomer Edwin Hubble. In 1929 he announced one of the most astonishing discoveries in the history of humankindthat the universe is expanding.

You may have already heard his name the Hubble Space Telescope is named after him.

Hubble observed that galaxies everywhere appear to be rushing away from one another.

The further away a galaxy is, the faster it appears to be rushing away.

An E X P A N D I N G universe suggests that everything must have been closer together in the past.

The further we go back in time, the closer everything was, until we arrive at a beginning when everything in the universe was condensed into a tiny point.
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This tiny point suddenly expanded, kind of like an explosion, sending energyand later, mattercareening in all directions.

We are still experiencing that expansion.

But what caused the expansion?

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Georges Lematre, a Jesuit priest and physicist, formulated a theory he called the primeval atom a few years before Hubbles discovery. Lematre liked the idea because it was consistent with Genesis.

The primeval atom was a precursor to the modern theory of the big bang. For that reason, Lematre is referred to as the father of the big bang.

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By the way

... the term big bang was coined by English astrophysicist, Fred Hoyle, who believed in an eternal steady-state universe. He didnt like the big bang theory, but the name caught on with physicists and the public.

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Lematre predicted that if the universe was born in a cataclysmic event like a big bang, there should be leftover radiationan energy echoof the primeval fireball, travelling through the universe today.

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That echo was discovered in 1964 by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson of Bell Labs, who later received the Nobel Prize for their discovery. This radiation is called the cosmic background radiation or cosmic microwave background.
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Lematre learned of its discovery shortly before his death in 1966.

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This is an image of the cosmic background radiation taken with the WMAP satellite. This is what the sky looks like in microwave light.

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You can watch the big bang on your television set. If you disconnect from cable or satellite reception and tune to a channel with no station, you will see static or snow on the screen. About 1% of the static is the cosmic background radiation.

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Why should you care about any of this?

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The big bang has been hailed as the greatest scientific discovery of all time. The scientific, philosophical, and religious implications of a universe with a definite beginning in time are enormous.

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Prior to Hubbles discovery, scientists mostly agreed with Hoyle that the universe was eternalno beginning, no end, no need for God. So, Genesis was in conflict with mainstream science (and philosophy) for about two thousand years .
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Big bang theory changed all of this. A universe with a beginning is consistent with the Genesis account of the creation of the universe:

Genesis 1:1: In the beginning God created the heavens and the Earth.

Mainstream science reached its current understanding of the beginning of our universe about 3,000 years after the Bible first described it.
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However, other serious conflicts between scripture and science seem to remain:

1. The Bible claims the universe and all life on Earth was created and developed in six days, followed by about 6,000 years since Adam. Science provides evidence that the universe is billions of years old.
2. The Bible has plants growing on Earth before the Sun appears. 3. The Bible says Adam was the first human, but science has evidence of humans living long before Adam appeared 6,000 years ago.

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?
Is this proof that the Bible is still hopelessly at odds with science?

The answer may surprise you.

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The truth is, there is no conflict between science and scripture. As was the case with the big bang, it is just taking a long time for science to catch up with the wisdom of the Bible.
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Lets start with Problem 1.

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The Bible claims the universe was created and developed in six days, and a careful reckoning of the biblical calendar indicates that approximately 6,000 years have passed since the creation of Adam.

Science, however, puts the age of the Universe somewhere between 11 and 17 billion years.

They cant both be right. Can they?


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The key to resolving this apparent conflict is Psalm 90:4

For a thousand years in your sight are as a day that passes, like a watch in the night.

This is our first hint that time described in Genesis may not be the same time as we know it today.

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The Bible distinguishes the six days of creation from the biblical calendar, which starts, not with Day One, but with the creation of the human soul at the end of Day Six.

Genesis 1:27: So God created man in his own image

The first six days are not included in the biblical calendar. Why?

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The Bible hints that the first six days are not the same as the days that follow for the next 6,000 years. For each of the first six days, we are told that events occur and that a day has passed; there is no special connection between the events and the passage of time. That changes completely with the creation of Adam, after which the passage of time is tied directly to earthly events.

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The flow of time for the first six days is special. But in what way?

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The ancient biblical scholar Nahmanides said that the six days of creation contain all the secrets and ages of the universe. How can six days contain all the secrets and ages of the universe?

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The answer is that the Bible was speaking of relativity long before physicists discovered it.

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Weve all heard the phrase time is relative, but what does it mean?
It means that the flow of time isnt constant, and its not the same for everyone.

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Depending on your velocity or how much gravity youre experiencing, your flow of time will differ from that of a person traveling at a different velocity or experiencing different gravity.

But the difference in the flow of time is only noticeable when compared from one frame of reference to another. Thats why its called relativity.

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Let's relate this to Genesis.

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Genesis 2:4: These are the generations of the heavens and the earth when they were created in the day that the Eternal God made earth and heavens.

Genesis 5:1: This is the book of the generations of Adam in the day that God created Adam.
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Genesis 2:4: These are the generations of the heavens and the earth when they were created in the day that the Eternal God made earth and heavens.

The Bible speaks of entire generations in one day. Sounds a lot like relativity.

Genesis 5:1: This is the book of the generations of Adam in the day that God created Adam.
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But, what is a day according to Genesis?

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At this point, it may be tempting to resolve the confusion by saying that a day in Genesis is metaphorical. Perhaps each day is actually an epoch, encompassing billions of years.

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But there is no biblical basis for that assumption. In fact, the ancient biblical commentators were careful to point out that each creation day was 24 hours long. Thats an actual day, defined by the length of time the Earth takes to make one complete rotation on its axis. No help there.

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Even more confusing, on the first day of Genesis, there was no earth.

Genesis 1:2: And the earth was without form and void

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Perhaps we're asking the wrong question.

We should be asking, A day according to whom?

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To answer that question, lets return to what modern physics has to say about the nature of time.

We now know that time is not absolute. Recall that Einstein demonstrated how differences in velocity and gravity create differences in the flow of time. People are generally not aware of this, because huge differences in velocity and gravity are needed to produce a noticeable difference in the flow of time.

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According to relativity, the duration between ticks of a clock will be L O N G E R in higher velocity conditions compared to a lower velocity circumstance. The same is true of places with higher gravity compared to lower gravity.

So, the passage of time will be slower in the high velocity or high gravity location when it is observed in relation to the low gravity or velocity location.
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This results in a stretching of time called time dilation, and though it may sound like science fiction, it is a very real effect.

High-precision clocks on fast aircraft show a very slight but measurable slowing in time compared to identical clocks on the ground.

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Gravity also stretches the flow of time. For instance, time flows just a tiny bit slower on the surface of the earth, where gravity is stronger, compared to high orbit, where gravity is a little weaker.

Einstein described gravitational effects on time in his General Theory of Relativity.

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Though the effect is small due to Earths modest gravitational field, gravitational time dilation is not a negligible effect. If scientists and engineers failed to account for it, GPS systems would not work.

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Even extremely small differences in gravity, such as that between the top and bottom of a tall building, will cause a difference in the flow of time.

Time will flow a tiny bit faster at the top than at the bottom. The difference is extremely small, but it is real.

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The effect is more noticeable in more extreme gravitational scenarios. If you were in close orbit around a black hole, time would be stretched even more by the extreme gravity near the black hole.

While you measure 24 hours passing on your spaceship clock, scientists on earth might observe 30 hours passing on their earth-clocks.
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As strange is it sounds, Einstein's theory of relativity tells us that the flow of time is never the same for any two places in the universe.

Everything in the universe that has gravity and velocity has its own time zone. It's like having countless cosmic time zones, except time in each zone flows differently.

So, when scientists say that the universe is 13.7 billion years old, that number is only valid from the Earths perspective. Anywhere else in the universe, the age would be measured as a different value.
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In light of this, can we calculate the flow of time in a way that includes the whole universe?

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It turns out that we can do it by using light as a cosmic clock.

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Light is electromagnetic radiation, and it exhibits both particle and wave behavior. Light always travels at the same speed in a vacuum (670 million mph), but its energy can change. The energy of light depends on the frequency of the light wave. The wave aspect the frequencyis what allows us to measure time over cosmic distances.

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Waves 101

wavelength Wavelength is the distance from crest to crest or trough to trough. Frequency is the number of crests or troughs that pass a given point per second.

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Waves 101
This wave has a short wavelength and a high frequency compared to this wave, which has a long wavelength and a low frequency. Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional, which means when one gets smaller, the other gets larger. This is because their product must always be equal to the speed of light: wavelength frequency = speed of light
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We can use the frequency of the light wave to calculate the passage of time. The frequency of light is the beat of our cosmic clock.

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Every time a wave crest passes this point, the clock beats once.

We use the frequency of the light wave to calculate the passage of time. The frequency of light is the beat of the cosmic clock:
tick..tick..tick..tick..tick..tick..tick..tick..
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Every time a wave crest passes this point, the clock beats once.

The greater the wavelength, the lower the frequency and the more slowly the clock will tick:
tick......tick......tick......tick......tick......

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Lets put all this together with Genesis. Humans dont appear until Day Six, so its God alone who is observing the events during the first six days. God is the observer measuring the ticks on the Genesis clock He created, and for whom a day is 24 hours.

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How do we know each day is literally 24 hours from Gods perspective? We dont know this with certainty, but two of the great ancient biblical scholars, Rashi and Nahmanides, make this claim, so we will proceed with this assumption.

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God, as the creator of the universe, must have a perspective that encompasses the entire universe, so we need some physical way to consider the universe as a whole. This will form the basis of the Genesis clock.

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We have two requirements for the Genesis clock: 1. It starts ticking on Day One, when the universe is created, and stops ticking at the end of Day Six, when humans first appear. 2. It must relate the passage of time between different moments in the universe as it developed after the big bang.

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Just after the big bang, the universe was hot, dense, and very compact. Energy and matter were distributed very evenly, with only a tiny bit of lumpiness, so the flow of time was nearly the same throughout.

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As the universe expanded, however, those tiny bits of lumpiness were amplified into regions with concentrated matter and vastly different gravitiesand, therefore, different flows of time. So our Genesis clock cant be tied to any one place in the universe.

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Since regions of the universe differ in their gravitiesand, therefore, flow of timewe cant use anything thats in just one place in the universe for our Genesis clock. What we need for our Genesis clock is some aspect of the universe thats uniform.

Does such a thing exist?

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Yes. Weve already encountered it: the radiation remnant of the big bang in the form of the cosmic background radiation. Its also called the cosmic microwave background (CMB). Recall that this was the predicted energy echo of the big bang.

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The CMB has been around since the beginning, and it is uniformly everywhere in the universe.

How uniform? Though the contrast is turned up very high in this image, the WMAP satellite has measured the CMB to be the same intensity in every direction in the sky to one part in 100,000. Thats perfect for our purpose.

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This is an all-sky view of the CMB as measured by WMAP. The yellow and red spots correspond to regions of higher intensity while the darker spots correspond to regions of lower intensity.

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As the only source of light that has existed since the big bang, we will use the CMB as the basis of the Genesis clock.

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Keep this in mind: 1. The frequency of light is the beat of any cosmic clock. The frequency of light can changeit can increase or decrease. This means the flow of time measured by a cosmic clock can speed up or slow down including the Genesis clock.

2.

3.

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Three things affect the frequency of light, and therefore our measure of the flow of time. Two weve already discussed: velocity and gravity. The third is the s t r e t c h I n - g of space as the universe expands.

For the Genesis clock it is only the stretching of space that is important.

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Recall Hubbles discovery

the universe is stretching.


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Space, not matter, is what stretches as the universe expands.

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The stretching of space stretches the light waves traveling through it. When light waves are stretched, their frequency decreases.

A decrease in the frequency of light means a slowing of the perceived passage of time as measured by a cosmic clock.
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Let's test this idea by applying it to very distant sources of light.


Astrophysicists routinely observe distant supernovaeexploding starsthat occurred when the universe was much younger. Because supernovae are extremely bright, they can be observed at great distances, even billions of light-years away.

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Let's say an astrophysicist observes a supernova that occurred when the universe was half its present age. If we assume the universe expands at a roughly constant rate, the universe has doubled in scale since the supernova occurred.

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Let's say an astrophysicist observes a supernova that occurred when the universe was half its present age. If we assume the universe expands at a roughly constant rate, the universe has doubled in scale since the supernova occurred. With this stretching of space, we expect the frequency of light from the supernova to be halved by the time it reaches us. Thus, the astrophysicist should perceive that the flow of time today is half compared to the flow of time when the supernova occurred. Is this what is actually observed?
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Yes, astrophysicists have observed the predicted time dilation effect from the stretching of space. Supernovae at great distances appear to take twice as long to fade as similar supernovae that explode relatively nearby.

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So what does the stretching of space mean for our cosmic clock?

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At the instant the big bang occurred, the entire universe was packed into a tiny speck of space. That tiny speck suddenly expanded in an enormous burst of energy. The stretching of space as the universe expanded stretched the energy left over (the energy echo) from the big bang.

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The light waves traveling through space since the big bang (the CMB) have been stretched by the same amount that the universe has stretched since the beginning.

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The light waves traveling through space since the big bang (the CMB) have been stretched by the same amount that the universe has stretched since the beginning.

Time has been stretched by the same amount that space has been stretched.

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Consider what happened every time the universe doubled in scale...

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Consider what happened every time the universe doubled in scale...

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the distance between waves crests of lightand hence the duration between the ticks of the Genesis clockalso doubled.

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Every time the universe doubled in scale, time passed at half its initial rate.

Every time the universe quadrupled in scale, time passed at one-quarter its initial rate.

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According to this Genesis clock, when the universe increased in scale by a million, time was passing at one-millionth its initial rate. You get the idea.

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Were now ready to understand how the six days of creation contain all the secrets and ages of the universe.

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To do this, lets map Genesis time onto time as we perceive it looking back from our earthly perspective.

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But first we must decide when time actually began. The quick answer is: with the big bang. However, time couldnt have grabbed hold until matter formed.

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A peculiar property of time is that it is only experienced by things that have mass. Einsteins Special Theory of Relativity says that any particle that travels at the speed of light experiences no time at all. Such particles live in an eternal state of now. Particles of light (called photons) are massless and thus experience no time.

Particles with mass, on the other hand, can never travel at the speed of light, so they always experience time.
Immediately after the big bang, there was only energy (light) throughout the universe. So it seems scientifically sound to mark the beginning of time at the moment when matter first appears.
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Matter was not created directly by the big bang. First we had a hot, dense soup of energy. From this energy soup, matter formed according to Einstein's famous equation, E = mc2, which says that matter and energy are interchangeable. But when the universe was still very young and hot, matter could just as easily turn back into energy.

Once the universe expanded and cooled enough for matter to remaina condition physicists refer to as quark confinementtime grabbed hold.

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Quarks are tiny, fundamental particlesthe basic building blocks of matter. This means that, unlike particles such as protons and neutrons, they cant be broken down into smaller pieces. Quarks were the first particles to be made from the energy of the big bang. They comprise, among other things, the protons and neutrons that all visible matter is made of.
proton

quarks

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Lets relate this to what the Bible says.

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The first word in the Bible is Braisheet


Hebrew for in the beginning of. The of is usually left out of English translations of the Bible, but its presence is important. So, we must ask, in the beginning of what?

In the beginning of time which grabs hold when matter forms.

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Let's take a closer look at Genesis 1:1-2:


In the beginning [of time] God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth was formless and empty

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Nahmanides commented that Genesis 1:1-2 means the universe was initially filled with the prime matter of the heavens and all it would contain and the prime matter of the earth and all that it would contain. Even though Nahmanides wrote this statement over 700 years ago using nothing but his understanding of the Bible, it could have come from a modern textbook on particle physics. Physicists have identified quarks as the prime matter or building blocks of matter. The Genesis clock therefore starts ticking at the moment that prime matter is created, the moment of quark confinement.
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Scientists calculate that space has expanded by a factor of almost one trillion since quark confinement. So space has been stretched to about 1,000,000,000,000 times its original scale since time began.

That means the frequency of the CMB has been stretched by the same amount. Therefore, its frequency has decreased by a factor of almost a trillion since quark confinement.

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So, the Genesis clock now ticks about a trillion times slower than at the beginning of Genesis Day One.

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From our perspective looking backward in time from an earthly perspective, the age of the universe is billions of years old. But, the Bible takes the earthly view of time only after the creation of Adam on Day Six.

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Before Adam, the Genesis clock was not tied to any one place in the universe, but to the universe as a whole.

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What does all this mean for the age of the universe?

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14 billion years 1,000,000,000,000 six days

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14 billion years 1,000,000,000,000 six days


Actually, 14 billion years divided by one trillion equals 5.1 days. The Genesis clock should stop ticking with the creation of Adam about halfway through Day Six, so it should be about 5.5 days total. The math involved in relating universal time to earthly time is more complicated than the simple division operation above, because the rate of expansion of the universe has not been entirely constant. When corrected for acceleration in the rate of expansion, the result works out to almost exactly 5.5 days. (There is also some discrepancy that results from not knowing the exact age of the universe in Earth years.)

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That is a rather amazing claim by itself. But our ultimate goal is to map cosmic time onto the Genesis account of creation. To do this, we first need to brush up on some math.

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As the universe expanded after the big bang, its scale and the ticks of the Genesis clock were becoming ever closer to those of the present time.
Working from the simpler assumption that the universe has expanded at an approximately constant rate, each doubling of the scale of the universe took twice as long as the one before it.

Mathematically, this is expressed as an exponential relationship: A = Ao e-kt This is the well-known compound interest formula.

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Let's apply this formula to Genesis and cosmic time.


Keep in mind that the next slide shows only an approximate mapping of Genesis time onto cosmic time, following the simplified assumption that the universe has been expanding at a roughly constant rate. It does not take into account the acceleration in the expansion rate discovered by cosmologists. A more detailed mapping is shown on the slide after the next.

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Genesis time and Earth time (without acceleration): Genesis Day 1 Start of Day (years B.A.) 15,750,000,000 End of Day (years B.A.) 7,750,000,000 Earth-time (years) 8 billion

2 3
4 5 6

7,750,000,000 3,750,000,000
1,750,000,000 750,000,000 250,000,000

3,750,000,000 1,750,000,000
750,000,000 250,000,000 ~ 6,000

4 billion 2 billion
1 billion 500 million 250 million

Earth-time is the duration of the Genesis Day from our earthly perspective B.A. = Before Adam

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Genesis time and Earth time (including acceleration): Genesis Day 1 Start of Day (years B.A.) 14,070,000,000 End of Day (years B.A.) 6,970,000,000 Earth-time (years) 7.1 billion

2 3
4 5 6

6,970,000,000 3,370,000,000
1,570,000,000 680,000,000 230,000,000

3,370,000,000 1,570,000,000
680,000,000 230,000,000 ~ 6,000

3.6 billion 1.8 billion


890 million 450 million 230 million

Earth-time is the duration of the Genesis Day from our earthly perspective B.A. = Before Adam

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How much agreement is there between science and the Bible about what happened on each of the Genesis days?

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Day One: Genesis 1:1-5

The Bible says: God creates the universe; God separates light from dark.

Science says: The big bang marks the creation of the universe; light breaks free as neutral atoms form; galaxies start to form.

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Day Two: Genesis 1:6-8

The Bible says: The heavenly firmament forms.

Science says: The disk of the Milky Way galaxy forms; the Sun, a disk star, forms.

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Day Three: Genesis 1:9-13

The Bible says: Oceans and dry land appear; the first life, plants appear; Kabbalah holds that this is only the start of plant-life, which develops further during the following days.

Science says: The Earth has cooled and liquid water appears 3.8 billion years ago followed almost immediately by the first forms of life; bacteria and photosynthetic algae.

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Day Four: Genesis 1:14-19

The Bible says: The Sun, Moon, and stars become visible in heavens.

Science says: Earths atmosphere becomes transparent when photosynthesis produces an oxygenrich atmosphere. Once Earth's atmosphere is transparent, the Sun, Moon, and other celestial objects are visible from the surface of the earth.

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This brings us to Problem #2: On Day Four, the Bible has plants (which need light) growing on Earth before the Sun appears. The important word here is appear. The Talmud explains that the Sun was created on Day One with the other stars in the firmament. It provided light to the Earths surface as soon as the Earth formed. But the Sun only became fully visible on Day Four along with the Moon and the rest of the stars in the sky, when the Earths atmosphere became transparent.

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Day Five: Genesis 1:20-23

The Bible says: The first animal life swarms abundantly in waters; followed by reptiles and winged animals.

Science says: The first multicellular animals suddenly appear, the waters swarm with animal life having the basic body plans of all future animals, and winged insects appear.

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Day Six: Genesis 1:24-31

The Bible says: The appearance of land animals; mammals; and humankind.

Science says: A massive extinction destroys 90% of life. The land is repopulated by mammals; hominids appear, followed by humans.

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We can now address Problem #3: The Bible says Adam was the first human, but science has convincing evidence for human-like creatures before Adam.
Contrary to what its critics say, the Bible has no problem with the fossil records of early humankind. Day Six is often confusing to readers who assume that human and hominid are synonymous. The ancient biblical commentators accepted the existence of hominids, who were physically identical to Adam and his sons but lacked one all-important feature: the human soul. These hominids possessed the animal spirit (nefesh in Hebrew) but not the human soul (neshama). The great biblical commentator, Maimonides, called these beings mere animals in human shape and form. *The Guide for the Perplexed, Part II: Chapter VII]

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In the original Hebrew language, Genesis 2:7 says ... and the adam became to a living soul." Nahmanides argued that the grammatically superfluous to is an important clue: God chose a pre-existing hominid life form and endowed it with a neshama Hebrew for communicating spiritto make it fully human.

This implies that humans are distinguished from the hominid animals by their ability to communicate spiritually with their Creator.
In other words, it doesnt matter if human bodies are biologically related to those of cavemen or apes. The human spirit is in Gods image.

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The New Testament confirms this view of the natural existing prior to the spiritual:

So it is written: The first man Adam became *to+ a living being; the last Adam, a life-giving spirit. The spiritual did not come first, but the natural, and after that the spiritual. The first man was of the dust of the earth; the second man is of heaven. As was the earthly man, so are those who are of the earth; and as is the heavenly man, so also are those who are of heaven. And just as we have borne the image of the earthly man, so let us bear the image of the heavenly man. 1 Corinthians 15:42-49
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None of the preceding scientifically proves Gods existence.


It does, however, show two important things

1. The atheist claim that science and the Bible are at odds is completely false.
2. Genesis 1 is the greatest scientific document of all time. Genesis 1 makes at least 26 scientifically testable statements about the origins of the universe and the emergence of life. All 26 are compatible with modern science and in the correct order. This amazing feat was accomplished 2,500 years before the dawn of modern science. (See the SixDay Science website for a discussion of this.)
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It has taken many centuries for science to catch up to the wisdom of the Bible. Science is still catching up. We may not currently understand the basis for everything in scripture, but the truth of Genesis should support our faith in the written word of God.

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When I consider your heavens, the work of your fingers, the moon and the stars, which you have set in place, what is man that you are mindful of him, the son of man that you care for him? You made him a little lower than the heavenly beings and crowned him with glory and honor. You made him ruler over the works of your hands; you put everything under his feet: all flocks and herds, and the beasts of the field, the birds of the air, and the fish of the sea, all that swim the paths of the seas. O LORD, our Lord, how majestic is your name in all the earth!
The Astronomers Psalm (Psalm 8:3-9)

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Image and Photo Credits


Slide 1: HST image of the Carina Nebula. Credit: NASA, ESA, N. Smith (University of California, Berkeley), and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA). Slide 3: Photo of Edwin Hubble. Credit: the Edwin Hubble Biography at the Western Washington University Planetarium. Slide 4: Photo of the HST in orbit. Credit: NASA. Slide 7: Wikipedia entry for expansion of the universe. Slide 9: HST image of the Coma Cluster of Galaxies. Credit: NASA, ESA, and the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA). Acknowledgment: D. Carter (Liverpool John Moores University) and the Coma HST ACS Treasury Team Slide 11: Photo of Georges Lematre. Credit: the archives of the Catholic University of Leuven. Slide 12: Photo of Fred Hoyle. Credit: unknown. Slide 14: Photo of Penzias and Wilson with the horn antenna that detected the CBR. Credit: Bell Labs. Slide 16: Cosmic microwave background map. Credit: the Legacy Archive for Microwave Background Data Analysis (LAMBDA). Support for LAMBDA is provided by the NASA Office of Space Science. Slide 27: HST image of newly forming stars in galaxy NGC 602. Credit: NASA, ESA, and the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA) - ESA/Hubble Collaboration. Slide 31: Hubble Space Telescope (HST) image of star-forming region 30 Doradus. Credit: NASA, ESA, and F. Paresce (INAF-IASF, Bologna, Italy), R. O'Connell (University of Virginia, Charlottesville), and the Wide Field Camera 3 Science Oversight Committee. Slide 32: Photo of Albert Einstein from his Wikipedia entry. Credit: Ferdinand Schmutzer.
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Image and Photo Credits


Slide 40: Earthrise photo taken by Apollo 8 crewmember Bill Anders, December 24, 1968. Slide 45: The Blue Marble. Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Image by Reto Stckli (land surface, shallow water, clouds). Enhancements by Robert Simmon (ocean color, compositing, 3D globes, animation). Data and technical support: MODIS Land Group; MODIS Science Data Support Team; MODIS Atmosphere Group; MODIS Ocean Group Additional data: USGS EROS Data Center (topography); USGS Terrestrial Remote Sensing Flagstaff Field Center (Antarctica); Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (city lights). Slide 63: Computer-simulated image of dark matter clumping by Andrey Kravtsov. Slide 74: Supernova remnant in the Pencil Nebula (NGC 2736). Image Credit: NASA and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA). Acknowledgment: W. Blair (JHU) and D. Malin (David Malin Images) Slide 75: Hubble image of the supernova remnant M1 (Crab Nebula). Credit: NASA, ESA, J. Hester and A. Loll (Arizona State University). Slide 87: Hubble image of NGC 6302, the Bug Nebula. Credit: NASA, ESA, and the Hubble SM4 ERO Team. Slide 109: (right) Hubble image of galaxy M74. Credit: NASA, ESA, and the Hubble Heritage (STScI/AURA)ESA/Hubble Collaboration. Acknowledgment: R. Chandar (University of Toledo) and J. Miller (University of Michigan). Slide 112: (left) Artists conception of the Milky Way galaxy based on telescopic surveys. Illustration Credit: R. Hurt (SSC), JPL-Caltech, NASA. Survey Credit: GLIMPSE. (right) Image of the sun courtesy of SOHO/EIT consortium. SOHO is a project of international cooperation between ESA and NASA.

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Image and Photo Credits


Slide 112: (left) NASA image of the earth and sun. (middle) Image of cyanobacteria bloom captured by the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) on NASAs Terra satellite. Image based on data from the NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team. Instrument: Terra - ASTER. (right) Image of green algae by Simon Andrews. Slide 113: (right) Hubble image of ancient white dwarf stars in the Milky Way galaxy. Credit for Hubble telescope photos: NASA and H. Richer (University of British Columbia). Slide 115: (left) Wikipedia entry on multicellular organisms. (middle) Wikipedia entry on captorhinidae (early reptiles). (right) Image of Rhyniognatha hirsti from Natural History Museum Nature online. Slide 116: (left) Photo of early mammal model from the Wikipedia entry on Megazostrodon. (middle) Image of Stone Age: The Feast by Viktor Vasnetsov from the Wikipedia entry on Cro Magnon. (right) Image of Adam and Eve by Jan Gossaert from The National Gallery online. Slide 119: Image of The Creation of Adam fresco by Michelangelo from its Wikipedia entry. Slide 122: Hubble image of the great clouds in the Carina nebula. Credit for Hubble Image: NASA, ESA, N. Smith (University of California, Berkeley), and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA). Credit for CTIO Image: N. Smith (University of California, Berkeley) and NOAO/AURA/NSF.

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