Chapter 11: Allowances

ME 5211 Human Factors

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Standards: Using data to set a standard

There is no one size fits all procedure for setting standards, Standard must be set to meet the context, and the particular goals of the organization, Setting an appropriate standard may require data collection, detective work and experimentation.

Allowances

Allowances compensate for fatigue and necessary delays in the workplace Allowances can be determined through observation and work sampling, Provide minimum of 9 10 % constant allowance for personal needs and basic fatigue, One can add these fatigue allowances to normal time as a percentage of the normal time to complete the task.

Two methods to collect data for estimating the need for allowances

Production Studies: observation of all activity in an extended interval (record duration and reason for all idle time). Work sampling studies (chapter 14): take a large number of random samples of the work. Walk in to work area at random times, record total number of delays, and productive work.

Estimating Allowances is an inexact science

It is difficult to estimate appropriate allowances exactly from scientific principles, However, appropriate and fair allowances can be estimated from data and from agreements developed over time between management and labor across many industries.

Collecting data to determine allowances

Collect data to determine:

Normal time (NT) Range of operator abilities (if several operators are observed) Estimate frequency and duration of foreign operations Fatigue over time

Look at environment to identify fatigue factors

Division of Allowances:

Fatigue:
Constant Variable

Special Allowances (related to process, equipment, materials, etc.)

Unavoidable Avoidable Extra Policy

Allowances

Constant Allowances

Personal needs: to maintain general wellbeing of the worker

Basic Fatigue: (rest needed to recover from energy expended, relieve monotony, stress, etc.)

Trips to drinking fountain, restroom, etc. 5% allowances for personal time are typical. (4.6 6.5% were found across many industries)

4 % allowances are appropriate for a seated worker doing light work, under good conditions, no special demands on sensory of motor systems. Harder work may require more allowances.

Variable Fatigue Allowances

Additional allowances may be given beyond the basic fatigue allowance of 4%. Fatigue may be the result of:
Physical stress Psychological stress A combination of both.

Fatigue can result in a loss of:

Muscle strength, Attention and concentration.

Major factors affecting fatigue:

Working conditions
Noise Heat Humidity

Nature of work
Posture Muscular exertion Tediousness Stress

General health of the worker

To determine whether workers need more rest:

Examine the speed at which they perform work cycles at:

Start End of a long period of continuous work.

Calculate a coefficient of fatigue: F = (T t) x 100/T

Where: F = Coefficient of fatigue t = Ave. time required to perform one cycle of work at the start of the period of continuous work, T = Ave. time required to perform one cycle of work at the end of the period of continuous work.

Example

At start of work, 1 cycle takes 2.3 min = t At end of work, 1 cycle takes 2.5 min = T Coefficient of Fatigue:
F = (2.5 min 2.3 min) ------------------------ x 100 = 8 % 2.5 min

Fatigue has slowed the worker down by 8 %

Coefficient of Fatigue

Note: this coefficient does not say anything about:

How long the period of work is, How large an allowance should be given for rest

It only indicates whether there is a build-up of fatigue. Tasks can be compared relatively to determine if some are more fatiguing then others.

Methods for calculating variable allowances for additional rest

Use ILO* recommended allowances

(Table 11.9, pg. 456). This table was developed in the late 1950s through consensus agreements between management and workers across many industries .

Compute allowances
Based on equations learned in Chapters 4 7.

* IL0 is the International Labor Office.

ILO Recommended Allowances (pg 456)

Allowances

Total allowances time = NT (normal time) * total percentage of allowances

Computing Variable Fatigue Allowances

Physical fatigue, Temperature and humidity, Noise, Illumination Visual strain: size, contrast of text and materials handled, and exactness of task Mental stress: complexity, danger and anxiety level of task Monotony: Associated with mental repetitiveness and vigilance tasks Tediousness: associated with repetitive motions

Computing perceived mental and physical workload

NASA-TLX: Task Load Index (Hart and Staveland) A subjective measure of workload in which subjects performing a task rate its difficulty according to 6 properties (shown on next slide).

NASA-TLX Task Load Index

Demands imposed on the subject:

Mental Physical Temporal

Interaction of subject and task:

Effort Frustration Performance

Subjects ratings in each of these areas are combined to create an overall weighted workload score.

For more information on NASA-TLX see:

Google to find PDF article on web:

Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index) Results for Empirical and Theoretical Research, Sandra G. Hart and Lowell E. Staveland.

Allowances

Total allowances time = NT (normal time) * total percentage of allowances

Special allowances

Unavoidable delays:
Interruptions from supervisor Material irregularities Interruptions from other duties (cant attend to one machine while servicing another).

Avoidable delays (one may or may not give allowances for

these things personal phone calls, social visits, etc.)

Extra allowances for special conditions,

Bad lot of material, many rejects Broken lifting equipment, need more time for material handling

Special Allowances

Policy allowances: exceptional allowances for exceptional circumstances:

New employees, Temporarily injured employees, Differently abled (visually impaired, hearing impaired, physically impaired, etc.)

Often negotiated between management, worker and union.

Allowances

Total allowances time = NT (normal time) * total percentage of allowances

Computing Standard Time

Standard time (ST):

ST = NT + NT * allowances
Where: NT = normal time Allowances are expressed as a percentage of the normal time (NT).

Alternatively, ST = NT * (1 + allowances)

Allowances Summary

If allowances are too high: costs are unnecessary inflated, If allowances are too low, labor relations suffer, illness and absenteeism may rise (also increasing costs) By combining observational data and analysis, one can obtain a more certain estimate of appropriate allowances, Total time for allowances should be in line with data from observational studies, once avoidable delays are subtracted (particularly with work sampling study of more than 2 weeks).