HORMONES

Hormones
Substance secreted by endocrine glands directly into the blood in trace amounts Has regulatory effect on the metabolism of specific organs or tissues.

characteristics
CHEMICAL NATURE OF HORMONES VARY WIDELY.
AMINO ACID-epinephrine and thyroxine STEROID- testosterone, progesterone, cortisol POLYPEPTIDE- ACTH, insulin, prolactin

ALL CELLS IN THE BODY ARE EXPOSED TO THE HORMONE THE RESPONSE OF THE TARGET TISSUES IS INITIATED BY HORMONE RECEPTOR

characteristics
HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISM:
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL Commonly employed by the hypothalamicpituitary target gland system Also accomplished through various metabolites or substrate POSITIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL Exemplified by estrogen and progesterone

Classification of Hormones
Group I hormones: -hormones that bind to intracellular receptors
-lipolytic -with transport protein, thus have long plasma half-life

Group II hormones:
-hormones that bind to cell surface receptors -usually involves a second messenger -without a transport protein, thus have a short plasma half-life

Mechanism of action of Hormones

Group I hormones
Lipolytic molecule diffuse through cell membrane and binds with intracellular receptor. Hormone receptor complex, then binds to specific regions of DNA and activates or inactivates specific genes and affects transcription and production of specific proteins (enzymes) which influence metabolic process.

Group II hormones
Hydrophilic molecules binds to a receptor site on cell membrane and is regulated with the second messengers, the adenylate cyclase systems which generate a series of regions activating different enzymes. Another mechanism involves calcium; where the hormone enhances membrane permeability to calcium thereby increasing calflux and calcium can be deposited into mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulums pools.

Hypothalamic Hormones
All hormones of the hypothalamus are regulatory hormones controlling the release of the tropic hormones from the adenohypophysis. This regulation is mediated by means of hypothalamic releasing hormones (RAH) and hypothalamic release-inhibiting hormones(RICH),all of which are small peptides Adenohypophyseal hormone regulated Releasing hormones

Hypothalamic Regulatory hormones

Adenohypophyseal hormone regulated Releasing hormones Corticotropin-releasing hormone(CRH) Thyrotropin-releasing hormone(TRH) Luteinizing hormone(LH) Follicle Stimulating hormone(FSH) Somatotropin-releasing hormone(SRH) Prolactin-releasing hormone(PRH) Melanotropin-releasing hormone(MRH)

Inhibitory hormones
Somatostatin(SRIH) Prolactin release-inhibiting hormone(PRIH) Melanotropin release-inhibiting hormone

Adenohypophyseal hormones
Most hormones secreted by their adenohypophysis are tropic hormones,that is,their target organs are other endocrine glands.Because of this,the adenohypophysis is considered as the master endocrine gland.

Somatotropin(SH)/Growth hormone(GH)
Polypeptide with 191 amino acid residues secreted by acidophilic cells Functions: Stimulates amino acids uptake by muscles and increases protein Raises plasma glucose Promotes release of free fatty acids and glycerol

Thyrotropin (TSH)
Glycoprotein that carries an alpha and a beta chain Secreted by basophilic cells Functions: Controlls iodine uptake of the thyroid gland and the synthesis and release of thyroxin Acts on adipocytes to stimulate lipolysis

Adrenocorticotropin(ACTH)
Polypeptide containing 39 amino acids of which only the first 24 constitute the active core. Secreted by the basophilic cells Functions Stimulate the hydrolysis of cholesteryl esters stored in the glucocorticoid producing cells of the adrenal cortex Stimulates lipolysis in adipocytes

Gonadotropins (LH and FSH)

Glycoproteins composed of two subunits,alpha and beta,causes the metabolic action of the hormone,beta imparts target cell specificity by causing it to bind only to its specific receptor. Secreted by basophilic cells

functions:
FSH causes the maturation of the ovarian follicles in the female; stimulates spermatogenesis in the male.

LH for stimulation of ovulation, corpus luteum formation and progesterone production in female; stimulates testosterone production in males.

Prolactin (PRL)
Also known as luleotrophic hormone (LTH). Lactogenetic hormone is a simple protein secreted by a acidophilic cells Functions Stimulates milk production in mammary gland by inducing the synthesis of two proteins that makes up synthetase, the enzyme responsible for the synthesis of lactose or milk sugar

Melanotropin (MSH)
Occurs as beta-MSH in humans. Small polypeptide Secreted by basophilic cells Functions In human Unknown It may act on the brain and somehow involve in learning and memory. Administration large amount of this hormone causes a deposition of pigment in the skin

Calcium Regulation
Calcium
Required for muscle contraction, blood coagulation, secretory processes, membrane integrity and plasma membrane transport, enzyme reactions, the release of hormones and neurotransmitters, and the intracellular action of a number of hormones. This involves three hormonesthat is acting on bones, kidney, and intestine.: 1. parathyroid hormone (PTH), 2. calcitriol 3. calcitonin (CT);

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

synthesized by the parathyroid gland. single chain polypeptide with 84 amino acid residues. functions:
Increasing the rate of dissolution of bone which moves calcium into the extracellular fluid (ECF) Reducing the renal excretion of calcium thus increasing calcium concentration In the ECF. Increasing the efficiency of calcium absorption from the synthesis of calcitriol.

Calcitriol (Vitamin D)
Stimulated by PTH Function Stimulation of Osteoblasts Increases GI absorption of dietary Ca++ Stimulates kidney to reabsorb Ca2+ and P043 Inadequate Vitamin D in diet & body causes osteomalacia and rickets

Calcitonin
secreted by the thyroid gland stimulates Ca2+ deposition in the bones and secretion by the kidneys, thus lowering blood Ca2+ levels.

Pancreatic Hormones
The endocrine portion of the pancreas consists of the islets of langerhans, which secrete at least four hormones:
insulin glucagons somatostatin pancreatic polypeptide

Insulin
polypeptide consisting of two chains, A and B linked by two interchain disulfide bridges. produced by beta cells functions:
Inhibits gluconeogenes Decreases the blood glucose level. Inhibits lipolysis in the liver and adipose tissue. Stimulates protein synthesis and retards protein degradation. Supports the growth and replication of many cells of epithelial origin.

Insulin
Hypoglycemia Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
Characterized by chronic high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) The three cardinal signs of DM are: Polyuria Polydipsia Polyphagia Type I (insulin dependent or IDDM) is due to insufficient insulin secretion Type II (insulin independent or NIDDM) is due to lack of effect of insulin

oversecretion of insulin due to an exaggerated response of cells to a rise in glucose

Glucagon
single chained polypeptide consisting of 29 amino acids produced by alpha cells function:
causes rapid mobilization of potential energy sources into glucose by stimulating glycogenolysis and into acids by stimulating lipolysis. most potent gluconeogenic hormone

Somatostatin
Polypeptide with 14 amino acids Function:
Inhibits the release of the other islet cell hormones

Pancreatic Polypeptide
36 amino acid peptide Recently discovered pancreatic hormone Function still unknown, but effects on hepatic glycogen levels and gastrointestinal secretion have been suggested.

Sex Hormones

1. Testosterone- synthesize in the interstitial cells or cells of Leydig in the testis. Functions: Produces the male sexual characteristic
2. Estrogen( estradiol, estrone, estriole) synthesize in the ovarian

follicles. Function: Induces the development of secondary sex characteristic of the female Prepares the uterus reception of fertilized ovum Stimulates enlargement of mammary glands
3. Progesterone- synthesized by the corpus luteum in the ovary

- continues work of estrogens on uterus, stimulates further growth of mammary glands, inhibits the maturation of additional follicles and ovulation

Placental Hormone

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) -glycoprotein secreted by the placenta as early as 14 days after fertilization -maintains and enlarges the corpus luteum and stimulates its secretion of estrogens and progesterone