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03/06/13
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Content
Part 1. Physical operation of diodes Part 2. Analysis of diode circuits and applications of diodes
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far, almost all the devices we have learnt are linear signal-processing functions, however, are implemented by nonlinear devices
Many
Linear amplifier
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Nonlinear amplifier
diode is the simplest and most fundamental nonlinear circuit element most important region is the boundary between n-type and p-type semiconductor, which is called pn junction
pn junction
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i + v
Cathode
(b) iv characteristic i
i + v v < 0 i=0
v i > 0 v =0
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Material, structure and the related features (crystal and semiconductor in particular) New particles to carry charge in addition to electrons New mechanism(s) of conduction in addition to what we have known Techniques to manufacture the devices (not included in this course)
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table
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is another important factor to determine the physical and chemical characteristics of the material
allotrope( ), e.g.
graphite diamond
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Why?
Atoms can not tell from each other: they behave uniquely In noncrystal, however, the atoms of the same element usually play different roles, e.g. Polymer
Energy band
Energy
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} n=1
2p 2s
Energy level
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Energy level
1s n = 1
1s
distance
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Bandgap
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In
addition to the conduction band and the valence band, there is an area called Bandgap No electron can stay at the bandgap!
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Transition
The
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movement of electrons between the energy bands is call transition. Transition is always accompanied with energy change (absorption or emission of photons and/or phonons, temperature change, etc.)
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Silicon /
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IV element Each atom is bound with four neighbors via Covalent Bond Its atomic structure is tetrahedron( )
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Monocrystalline silicon
polycrystalline silicon
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Tetrahedron( )
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+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
Silicon atoms
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Valence electrons
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Covalent bond
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Conduction band
5.43A
Lattice pitch
Forming of the energy band when silicon atoms approach to each other so as to compose crystalline silicon
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Intrinsic semiconductor
Pure
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semiconductor At 0 K, all bonds are intact and no free electrons are available for current conduction Ec( ) Eg = Ec - Ev Ev( )
The energy bands and the states of electrons in Si/Ge at T= 0 K
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@T
= 0 ( K)
Thermal ionization
At
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room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by thermal ionization
Each
broken bond gives rise to a free electron and a hole, both of which become available for current conduction ionization
Thermal
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Carriers
Free
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electron ---produced by thermal ionization. It can move freely in the lattice structure so as to form current Hole---empty position in broken covalent bond. It can also move freely to form current
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Carriers
The
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free electron is a negative charge and the hole is a positive charge Both of them can move in the crystal structure, so as to form electric current.
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A free electron may fill into a hole, resulting in the disappearance of a pair of carriers ( a free electron and a hole).
Thermal
equilibrium
At a steady temperature, the recombination rate is equal to the ionization rate thermal equilibrium The concentration of the carriers at thermal equilibrium does not change and can be calculated.
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Carrier concentration
Carrier
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n = p = ni
2
where
ni = BT e
At
3 EG kT
ni 1.5 10
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10
(cm )
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Important notes
ni strongly
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depends on temperature. The high the temperature is, the dramatically great the carrier concentration is At room temperature only one of every billion atoms is ionized Silicons conductivity is between that of conductors and insulators. Actually the characteristic of intrinsic silicon approaches to insulators
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Doped semiconductor
Conductivity
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of the semiconductor can be significantly changed by doping. There are two types of doped semiconductors: n type and p type. They are used to form pn junction.
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Free E
Si P Si Si Si Si + Si Si Si Si Si Si
Donor
Si Si Si
bound charge
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si
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Si
Si
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Si
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Si
Si
Si
n type semiconductor
Donor---
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pentavalent impurity provides free electrons (usually entirely ionized at room temperature) bound charge---impurity atom donating electron gives rise to positive bound charge carriers---free electrons (mostly generated by ionized donor and a very tiny portion by thermal ionization) . carriers---holes (only generated by thermal ionization) .
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Positive
Majority
Minority
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equilibrium equation
nn 0 pn 0 = ni
Electric
neutral equation
nn 0 = pn 0 + N D
where ND is the donor concentration
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nn 0 N D 2 pn 0 ni / N D
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Si Al Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Hole
Si Si Si
Acceptor
Si
Si
Si
bound charge
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si
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Si
Si
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Si
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Si
Si
Si
p type semiconductor
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Acceptor--- trivalent impurity provides holes (usually entirely ionized) Negative bound charge --- impurity atom accepting hole give rise to negative bound charge Majority carriers---holes (mostly generated by ionized acceptor and a tiny small portion by thermal ionization) Minority carriers--- free electrons (only generated by thermal ionization.)
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equilibrium equation
p p 0 n p 0=ni
Electric
neutral equation
p p0 = np0 + N A
where NA is the acceptor concentration
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pp0 N A 2 n p 0 ni / N A
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carrier is only determined by the impurity. It is independent of temperature. Minority carrier is strongly affected by temperature. If the temperature is high enough, the characteristic of doped semiconductor will decline to that of intrinsic semiconductor
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Doping compensation
On p type semiconductor (substrate), n type semiconductor can be formed by injecting donors with N D >> N A into the specific area. or reversely.
N+ D NA N+ A ND
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Doping compensation
The boundary between n and p type semiconductor is the pn junction. This is the basic step for VLSI fabrication technology.
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The impurities
Doping
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should not change the lattice structure! Hence neighbor elements are usually used as dopants.
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Semiconductor materials
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IV: Silicon---todays IC technology is based entirely on silicon Germanium---early used III-V: Gallium arsenide (GaAs)---used for microwave circuits InP---used for optoelectronics II-VI: used for luminescence, IF, etc.
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Carriers movement
There
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are two mechanisms for holes and free electrons to move in the silicon crystal. Drift
The carrier motion is generated by the electrical field across a piece of silicon. This motion will produce drift current. The carrier motion is generated by the different concentration of carrier in a piece of silicon. The diffused motion of carriers from higher concentration to lower one will give rise to diffusion current
Diffusion
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Drift velocities
vdrift = p E vdrift = n E
n where p , are the constants called mobility of holes and electrons, respectively
J n drift = ( qn ) (n E ) = qn n E J p drift = qp p E
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J drift = qn np p ) E
Resistivity
= 1 q (n p ) n p
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= 1 q (n + p ) = 1 qn ( + ) n p i n p
* Resistivity is inversely proportional to the carrier concentration of intrinsic semiconductor
Temperature
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1 For n type qN D n = 1 q (n n + p p ) 1 qN For p type A p * Resistivities are inversely proportional to the concentration of doped impurities.
Temperature
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A bar of intrinsic silicon (a) in which the hole concentration profile shown in (b) has been created along the x-axis by some unspecified mechanism.
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where D p , Dn are the diffusion constants or diffusivities for hole and electron, respectively The diffusion current density is proportional to the slope of the the concentration curve, or the concentration gradient.
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Einstein relationship
Einstein
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VT ; 25 mv
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pn Junction
The
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Junction
capacitance
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pn Junction
Usually
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pn+
The
superscript + denotes the region of more heavily doped in comparison with the other region
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of semiconductor characteristics:
p-type: majority carriers (holes)+ very few amount of minority carriers (free electrons) + negative bound charges n-type: majority carriers (free electrons)+ very few amount of minority carriers (holes) + positive bound charges
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procedure of forming pn: the dynamic equilibrium of drift and diffusion movements for carriers in the silicon: Diffusion Space charge Drift Equilibrium
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Both the majority carriers diffuse across the boundary between p-type and n-type semiconductor. The direction of diffusion current is from p side to n side.
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charge region
Recombining of electrons and holes results in the disappearance of carriers (depletion) Bound charges are no longer neutralized by majority carriers and are then uncovered. There is a region close to the junction where majority carriers on both side are depleted and there are uncovered bound charges of different polarity This region is called carrier-depletion region( ) or space charge region( ). It acts as a barrier( ) preventing the majority carriers from further diffusion
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Electric field is established across the space charge region. Direction of electronic field is from n side to p side. It helps minority carriers drift through the junction. The direction of drift current is from n side to p side.
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Two opposite currents across the junction is equal in magnitude. No net current flows across the pn junction. Equilibrium condition is maintained by the barrier voltage.
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Depletion region exists almost entirely on the slightly doped side. Width depends on the voltage across the junction.
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I-V Characteristics
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The diode iv relationship with some scales expanded and others compressed in order to reveal details
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The Forward-Bias Region, determined by The Reverse-Bias Region, determined by The Breakdown Region, determined by
v>o
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Minority-carrier distribution in a forwardbiased pn junction. It is assumed that the p region is more heavily doped than the n region; NA >>ND.
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n p ( x) = n p 0+ [ n p ( x p ) n p 0 e ]
where L p = Dp
p
( xx p )
Ln
Ln ,=
v
D n n
diffusion length
v
n , p excess-minority-carrier lifetime
pn ( xn ) = pn0e
VT
, np ( xp ) =np0 e VT
Exponential relationship Small voltage incremental gives rise to great incremental of excess minority carrier concentration
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dn (x ) dx x = x p LnnA Dn )( e
V VT
1)
= I s (e VT 1)
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1)
(exponential relationship) Is (saturation current) strongly depends on temperature n=1 or 2, in general n=1 e.g. assuming V1 at I1 and V2 at I2, then:
V2 V1 = nVT ln
I2
= 2.3nVT lg I1
I2
I1
For a decade changes in current, the diode voltage drop changes by 60mv (for n=1) or 120mv (for n=2)
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Turn-on voltage
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A conduction diode has approximately a constant voltage drop across it. Its called turn-on voltage.
VD ( on ) = 0.7V VD ( on ) = 0.25V
Diodes with different current rating will exhibit the turn-on voltage at different currents. Negative TC, TC = 2mv / C
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p-type area
n-type area
pp0
nn0
np0
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pn0
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where Is is the saturation current. It is proportional to ni2, which is a strong function of temperature.
I s = qA ( D p pn 0 Lp
2
Dn n p 0 Ln
Dn = qAn i ( + ) L p nD Ln n A
Dp
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The junction breaks down, and a voltage VZ , with the polarity indicated, develops across the junction.
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Breakdown mechanisms
Zener
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effect
Occurs in heavily doping semiconductor Breakdown voltage is less than 5v. Carriers generated by electric field---field ionization. TC is negative.
Avalanche
effect
Occurs in slightly doping semiconductor Breakdown voltage is more than 7v. Carriers generated by collision. TC is positive.
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Breakdown mechanisms
Remember: pn junction breakdown is not a destructive process, provided that the maximum specified power dissipation is not exceeded.
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Zener Diode
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Circuit symbol
The diode iv characteristic with the breakdown region shown in some detail.
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Junction Capacitance
Diffusion
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Capacitance
Charge stored in bulk region changes with the change of voltage across pn junction gives rise to capacitive effect Small-signal diffusion capacitance
Cd,
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Junction Capacitance
Depletion
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capacitance
UR
Charge stored in depletion layer changes with the change of voltage across pn junction, which gives rise to capacitive effect. Small-signal depletion capacitance
UR+U
Cb PN
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Diffusion Capacitance
According to the definition:
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Cd = dQ
dV
The charge stored in bulk region is obtained from the following equations:
Q p = Aq [ pn ( x ) pno ]dx
xn
= Aq [ pn ( xn ) pno ] L p = p I p
Qn = n I n
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Diffusion Capacitance
The expression for diffusion capacitance:
V d Cd = [T I s e VT ] dV
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=(
VT
)IQ
Forward-bias, linear relationship Reverse-bias, almost inexistence
T ( )IQ VT 0
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Depletion Capacitance
According to the definition: C j = dQ
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dVR V
R =VQ
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Depletion Capacitance
A more general formula for depletion capacitance is : C j0
Cj = (1 + VR V0 )m
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1 1 m= ~ 3 2
1 m = 2
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Junction Capacitance
Remember: a) Diffusion and depletion capacitances are incremental capacitances, only are applied under the small-signal circuit condition. b) They are not constants, they have relationship with the voltage across the pn junction.
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Summary
Si
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and Ge are IV elements with tetrahedron atomic structure They can be used to manufacture various devices Si is dominant because
better thermal stability due to large bandgap abundant (27 % in the Earth) and cheap
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Summary
When you find yourself competing with silicon, dont.
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Homework
February
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21 28
February
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Methods
of analysis
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i = I s (e I s e I s
The
v
nV T
1)
Forward biased Reverse biased
nV T
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Simplified diode model The constant-voltage-drop model Small-signal model High-frequency model Zener Diode Model
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Piecewise-linear model of the diode forward characteristic and its equivalent circuit representation.
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Constant-Voltage-Drop Model
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The constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forward characteristics and its equivalent-circuit representation.
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Small-Signal Model
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Development of the diode small-signal model. Note that the numerical values shown are for a diode with n = 2.
rd
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Small-Signal Model
Incremental resistance:
rd = nVT I DQ , ( n = 1,2)
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*The signal amplitude sufficiently small such that the excursion at Q along the i-v curve is limited to a short, almost linear segment.
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High-Frequency Model
High frequency model
Related
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VZ = VZ 0 + I Z rZ
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Method of Analysis
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Graphical
Load
Analysis
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Load line
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VDD v
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Method of Analysis
Iterative
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analysis
Analysis
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circuits
Voltage Limiter
regulator
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Half-Wave Rectifier
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(a) Half-wave rectifier. (b) Equivalent circuit of the half-wave rectifier with the diode replaced by its battery-plus-resistance model.
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Half-Wave Rectifier
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(c) Transfer characteristic of the rectifier circuit. (d) Input and output waveforms, assuming that rD << R
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Parameter determination
In
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selecting diodes for rectifier design, two important parameters must be specified:
The current-handling capability The peak inverse voltage (PIV)
It
is usually prudent, however, to select a diode that has a reverse breakdown voltage at least 50% greater than the expected PIV.
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Full-Wave Rectifier
Transformer
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Full-Wave Rectifier
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(a) circuit (b) transfer characteristic assuming a constant-voltage-drop model for the diodes
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Full-Wave Rectifier
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(a) circuit
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Peak Rectifier
The
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pulsating nature of the output voltage produced by the rectifier circuits discussed above makes it unsuitable as a dc supply for electronic circuits. A simple way to reduce the variation of the output voltage is to place a capacitor across the load resistor.
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Peak Rectifier
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CR >> T
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Peak Rectifier
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Voltage and current waveforms in the peak rectifier circuit with T CR >>
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Peak Rectifier
Waveforms
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Self-study
3.8
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Limiting and clamping circuits 3.9 Special diode types 3.10 The SPICE diode model and simulation examples
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SUMMARY
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The silicon junction diode is basically a pn junction. Such a junction is formed in a single silicon crystal. The unidirectional-current-flow property makes the diode useful A silicon diode conducts a negligible current until the forward voltage is at least 0.5 V. Then the current increases rapidly, with the voltage drop increasing by 60 mV to 120 mV (depending on the value of n) for every decade of current change.
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SUMMARY
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The forward conduction of practical silicon diodes is accurately characterized by the relationship:
v
i = Is e
nVT
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SUMMARY
In
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the reverse direction, a silicon diode conducts a current on the order of 10-9A. This current is much greater than Is and increases with the magnitude of reverse voltage.
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SUMMARY
Beyond
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a certain value of reverse voltage (that depends on the diode) breakdown occurs, and current increases rapidly with a small corresponding increase in voltage.
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SUMMARY
A
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hierarchy of diode models exists, with the selection of an appropriate model dictated by the application. In many applications, a conducting diode is modeled as having a constant voltage drop, usually about 0.7V.
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Homework
March
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7, 2011
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