TWI CSWIP 3.1 Wis 5 Welding Inspection Weldability: World Centre For Materials Joining Technology

TWI CSWIP 3.
1 WIS 5 WELDING INSPECTION WELDABILITY

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd
World Centre for Materials Joining Technology
Types of fracture
Ductile fracture
Appear when yielding and deformation precedes failure
Types of fracture
Ductile fracture distinguish features: it is the result of overloading evidence of gross yielding or plastic deformation the fracture surface is rough and torn the surface shows 45 shear lips or have surfaces inclined at 45 to the load direction (because maximum shear plane is at 45 to the load!)
Types of fracture
Brittle fracture Brittle fracture is a fast, unstable type of fracture.
Types of fracture
Brittle fracture distinguish features:
There is little or no plastic deformation before failure The crack surface will show chevron marks pointing back to the initiation point In case of impact fracture, the surface is rough but not torn and will usually have a crystalline appearance The surface is 90 Deg to the load
Types of fracture
Factors affecting brittle fracture:
Temperature (transition curve, convergence of YS and UTS as the temperature is reduced) Crystalline structure (b.c.c. vs. f.c.c.) Material toughness Residual stress Strain rate (YS increase but UTS remain constant) Material thickness (restrain due to surrounding material) Stress concentrations/weld defects
Types of fracture
Causes for brittle fracture:
Presence of weld defects (poor quality) Poor toughness in parent material (wrong choice) Poor toughness in HAZ (to high heat input) High level of residual stress (no PWHT, wrong design)
Types of fracture
If a material is subjected to a static load, final rupture is preceded by very large strains. If the same material is subjected to repeated loads, failure may occur: At stress well below elastic limit With little or no plastic deformation
Types of fracture
Fatigue fracture
Fatigue fracture occurs in structures subject to repeated application of tensile stress. Crack growth is slow (in same cases, crack may grow into an area of low stress and stop without failure).
Types of fracture
Fatigue fracture distinguish features:
crack growth is slow it initiate from stress concentration points load is considerably below the design or yield stress level the surface is smooth the surface is bounded by a curve bands may sometimes be seen on the smooth surface beachmarks. They show the progress of the crack front from the point of origin the surface is 90 to the load final fracture will usually take the form of gross yielding (as the maximum stress in the remaining ligament increase!) fatigue crack need initiation + propagation periods
Avoiding fatigue fracture

Use smooth shapes and transitions
if possible, position welds in low stress areas Check weld joint classification Check effect of possible weld defects; define weld quality
Use improvement techniques

Provide for inspection in service for fatigue cracks
Types of fracture
Creep fracture Creep is defined as a slow deformation under constant load at elevated temperatures. Can occur in materials which are operated for extensive periods at high temperatures. The reason for creep fracture is the flow (or plastic deformation) of metals when held for long periods of time at stresses well bellow their normal yield strength.
Types of fracture
Creep fracture distinguish features:
Creep is a time-temperature dependant phenomenon Section under stress continue to deform even if the load is maintained constant Creep is most likely when operating near the recrystallization temperature of that material Usually appear in case of process plant equipment, due to heating and cooling cycles
Welding Defects
Cracks
Classified by Shape Longitudinal Transverse Branched Chevron Classified by Position HAZ Center line Crater Fusion zone Parent metal
Welding Defects
Cracks
4 Crack Types Solidification cracks Lamellar tearing Hydrogen induced cracks Reheat cracks
Welding Defects
Cracks
Solidification Occurs during weld solidification process Steels with high sulphur content (low ductility at elevated temperature) Requires high tensile stress Occur longitudinally down centre of weld e.g. Crater cracking
Welding Defects
Solidification Cracking
Welding Defects
Deeper and narrow weld beads are prone to solidification cracking (depth to width ratio over 2:1) In order to avoid solidification cracking, reduce penetration and increase bead width (depth to width ratio 0,5:1)
Welding Defects
Cracks
Lamellar Tearing Step like appearance Occurs in parent material or HAZ Only in rolled direction of the parent material Associated with restrained joints subjected to through thickness stresses on corners, tees and fillets Requires high sulphur or non-metallic inclusions
Welding Defects
Lamellar Tearing
Welding Defects
Lamellar Tearing
Restraint High contractional stress Lamellar tear

Welding Defects
Lamellar Tearing
Grind and infill with ductile weld metal
Control restraint Re-design weld
For critical work a forged T piece may be used

Forged T Piece
Welding Defects
Cracks
Re-heat cracking Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels during post weld heat treatment or service at elevated temperatures Occurs in areas of high stress and existing defects Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor profile material selection and controlled post weld heat treatment
Welding Defects
Cracks
Hydrogen Induced Requires susceptible grain structure, stress and hydrogen Hydrogen enters via welding arc Hydrogen source - atmosphere or contamination of preparation or electrode Moisture diffuses out into parent metal on cooling Most likely in HAZ
Cold (Hydrogen) Cracking

Also known as Toe, Underbead, HICC, delayed and chevron cracking. Occurs in carbon; C/manganese; Low, medium and high alloy steels:FERRITIC/MARTENSITIC steels. Very rarely in austenitic or duplex stainless steels, never in Ni or Cu alloys. i.e. Body centered cubic metals NOT face centered cubic metals

Typical sites for cold cracking

Toe cracking in MMA fillet weld

Occurs :-
At temperatures below 300oc

May be up to 72hrs after completion
In weld metal, HAZ, parent metal.

At weld toes, under weld beads, at stress
raisers.

Caused by : The presence of hydrogen.
A susceptible microstructure.
The presence of sufficient residual stress.

Presence of hydrogen From moisture in the consumables damp electrodes, damp flux, water in shield gas.
Condensation on parent metal

Dirt/grease on consumables or weld preps

Reduction in Weld Metal Hydrogen
The most effective means of avoiding hydrogen cracking is to reduce the amount of hydrogen generated by the consumable, ie by using a low hydrogen process or low hydrogen electrodes. Welding processes can be classified as high, medium, low, very low and ultra low, depending on the amount of weld metal hydrogen produced. The weld metal diffusible hydrogen levels (ml/100g of deposited metal), and the hydrogen scale designations of EN 1011-2: 2001 are as follows: Scale A Scale B Scale C Scale D Scale E High >15 Medium 10 Low 5 Very low 3 5 Ultra-low 3

Reduce Hydrogen Level
Select lower hydrogen potential process e.g. BASIC vs. RUTILE MAG vs. MMA Increase hydrogen diffusion with increased preheat Maintain preheat after welding allowing diffusion from weld Bake basic MMA electrodes/SAW fluxes - manufacturers recommendations! Cleanliness/dryness of consumables and weld preparations e.g. rust scale grease cutting fluids Use austenitic or nickel fillers

Typical Hydrogen Levels

Mild steel (CE <0.4)
readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low hydrogen processes or electrodes are used preheat may be required when welding thick section material, high restraint and with higher levels of hydrogen being generated
C-Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5)

thin sections can be welded without preheat but thicker sections will require low preheat levels and low hydrogen processes or electrodes should be used
Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE >0.5)

preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld heating and slow cooling may be required

Residual Stress
Residual stress will be increased by:

Increasing plate thickness Restraint rigid fixtures weld volume insert in plate
Multi-pass vs. single pass Small weld beads vs. large weld beads

Reduce Residual Stress
Ensure good fit-up: - minimum root gap minimum misalignment Remove restraints e.g. Preset the joint Inter run hammer peening - when permitted !
Redesign - easier said than done !

Preheat may help Large weld passes Minimum amount of weld metal e.g . J prep rather than V prep PWHT from preheat temp Dress weld toes at preheat temp

Susceptible microstructure Hard brittle structure MARTENSITIC Promoted by: A) High Carbon Content, Carbon Equiv (CE) C + Mn + Cr+Mo+V + Ni+Cu 6 5 15 B) high alloy content C) fast cooling rate:-
Cold Material, Thick Material and Low Heat Input.

Heat input =
Amps x Volts x arc time Run out length x 10-3 (1000) Kj/mm

ARC EFFICIENCY FACTORS Submerged arc (single wire) MMA MIG/MAG and flux cored wire TIG and plasma 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.6
Arc efficiency factor to be applied to the heat input formula to correct for heat losses in the various processes.

COMBINED THICKNESS - used to calculate combined chilling effect of joint type and thickness.
75mm Combined Thickness t1+t2 + t3


Preheat Temperature Control
TEMPILSTIKS - crayons, melt at set temps. Will not measure max temp.
Pyrometers - contact or remote, measure actual temp. Thermocouples - contact or attached, very accurate, measure actual temp.

Application Of Preheat
Heat 75mm either side of joint Heat opposite face Measure temp 2mins after heat removal Always best to heat complete component rather than local if possible If procedure requires preheat So do tack welds and attachments Even if procedure does not require preheat tack welds and attachments may Preheat always higher for fillet than butt

Preheat application Furnace - heats entire component - best Electrical preheat elements -controllable; Portable; Site use; Clean; Component cannot be moved. Gas burners - direct flame impingement; Possible local overheating; Less controllable;Portable; Manual operation possible; Component can be moved. Radiant gas heaters - capable of automatic control; No flame impingement; No contact with component; Portable.
Induction heating - controllable; Rapid heating (mins not hours); Large power supply; Expensive equipment

Manual gas preheating

Electrical preheat of large steel structure

Slow Cooling Rate Apply or increase preheat - BS EN 1011 Part 2 Gives recommendations on suitable preheat levels Recommendations in specifications e.g. BS 2633, ASME VIII, ASME B31.3 Increase process heat input complying with toughness requirements

Prevention Slow the cooling rate Reduce hydrogen level Reduce residual stress
WELD DECAY
The risk of weld decay has reduced significantly in recent years through the development of low carbon grades (e.g. 304L, 316L) which contain 0.03%C, and 'stabilised' grades (e.g. 321, 347) containing either Ti or Nb, to form carbides preferentially to Cr. In both types of steel, the amount of free carbon in solution is sufficiently low to ensure that Cr carbide formation is minimal and therefore that sensitisation is not usually of practical significance during welding. Carbon levels in the standard austenitic grades have also been reduced in recent years, usually to levels of 0.05%, reducing the tendency for sensitisation so that this is very much less of a practical problem than was the case in the past.
WELD DECAY
Sensitisation range where peak temperatures in the HAZ reaches about 6000C to 8500C
WELD DECAY
When heated in the range 6000C to 8500C carbides form at the grain boundaries
Chromium migrates to site of growing carbide
WELD DECAY
Grain boundaries become depleted of chromium and lose their corrosion resistance
WELD DECAY
WELD DECAY

TWI CSWIP 3.1 Wis 5 Welding Inspection Weldability: World Centre For Materials Joining Technology

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TWI CSWIP 3.1 Wis 5 Welding Inspection Weldability: World Centre For Materials Joining Technology

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TWI CSWIP 3.

1 WIS 5 WELDING INSPECTION WELDABILITY

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Appear when yielding and deformation precedes failure

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Avoiding fatigue fracture

Use improvement techniques

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Restraint High contractional stress Lamellar tear

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

For critical work a forged T piece may be used

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Cold (Hydrogen) Cracking

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

Cold (Hydrogen) Cracking

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Cold (Hydrogen) Cracking

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Cold (Hydrogen) Cracking

At temperatures below 300oc

In weld metal, HAZ, parent metal.

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Cold (Hydrogen) Cracking

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Cold (Hydrogen) Cracking

Condensation on parent metal