Cell Reproduction

Mitosis & Meiosis

 Why Cells Divide
 Surface Area/ Volume Ratio
 As the cell grows, the volume increases at a
greater rate than the surface area
 Can't take in enough nutrients, or remove
wastes
 Therefore the cell must grow or divide
 Growth and Repair
 Replace worn or damaged cells
 Frequency of replacement varies:
bacteria ~ every 20 minutes
human cells ~ every 18-22 hours
 Many cells in the body don't divide
Cell Division
 Cellular Reproduction
 When the parent cell divides, it
forms new daughter cells
 Organisms reproduce in two ways:
 Asexual Reproduction
 Sexual Reproduction
 Sexual vs. Asexual
Reproduction
 Asexual Reproduction
 production of offspring from one
parent
 therefore genetic material is identical
to parent
 Sexual Reproduction
 formation of a new individual from
the union of 2 cells
 2 parents, therefore offspring have
some hereditary material from each
Types of Asexual Reproduction
 Binary Fission
 simplest form; the cell splits in 2
 Spore Formation
 Begins with replication
 Spores can remain inactive until conditions
are favorable
 molds, fungi
 Yeast reproduce by budding
 Vegetative Propagation
 Some plants, e.g. strawberries
 Regeneration
 planaria, star fish, etc.
 Examples of mitosis

Seastar
Amoeba

Onion root tip Hydra

 Cell Division in

Prokaryotes
 Binary Fission:
 The simplest
form of cell
division
 The cell splits in
2
The Process of Binary Fission
 First the single circular chromosome
duplicates = Replication
 Both chromosomes attach to sites on
the cell membrane
 As the cell grows, a new membrane
forms between attachment sites
 Membrane pinches off and the new
cells separate
 Sexual Reproduction
 The joining of 2 specialized sex cells
called gametes
 male = sperm
 female = ovum

 Process of combining gametes =

fertilization
 Fertilization produces a zygote
 has characteristics of both parents
 Human
Sexual
Reproduction
Male testis produces
sperm
 Female ovary
produces ova
 Each has 23
chromosomes
 Unite to form a
zygote with 46
chromosomes
 23 pair
 Develops into a fetus
 Cell Division
 All types of reproduction require cell division
 2 processes can be used to divide the cell’s
nuclear material:
 Mitosis
 Occurs in somatic cells (body cells) in eukaryotes
 As a result of mitosis each daughter cell receives
an exact copy of the chromosomes present in the
parent cell
 Meiosis
 Occurs in gametes (sex cells)
 As a result each daughter cell receives 1 of each
pair of chromosomes present in the parent cell
 Mitosis
 Celldivision in eukaryotic cells involves
nuclear division called mitosis
 Occurs in somatic cells
 body cells; not sex cells
 As a result of mitosis, each daughter
cell receives an exact copy of the
chromosomes present in the parent
cell
 Chromosomes contain genetic material
 DNA
 Chromosomes
 During cell division in eukaryotic
cells, the DNA is coiled into
chromosomes
 Every body cell of the same type of
organism has the same number of
chromosomes
 humans  2n = 46
 goldfish  2n = 94
 Mosquito  2n = 6
 Chromosome Structure
 Each chromosome is formed from
two joined strands called chromatids
 Each chromatid is alike
 has a long arm & a short arm
 joined at the centromere

 Chromosomes contain DNA and

associated proteins
 Chromosomal Proteins
 Each chromosome is a single DNA
molecule and associated proteins
 Histones –
 One type of chromosomal protein
 The DNA wraps tightly around the histones
 Histones help maintain the shape of the
chromosome
 Nonhistone proteins -
 control the activity of specific regions of
DNA
 DNA double helix
Histones
“Beads
on a
string”

Nucleosome

Tight helical fiber

Supercoil

Centromere

Sister
chromatids
Picturing Chromosome
Structure
Structure of a chromosome
Visualizing Chromosomes
 Chromosome Make-up
 Chromosomes of somatic cells are in pairs
 One of each pair comes from mother,
one from father
 The 2 chromosomes in a pair are
homologous
 Alike
in appearance and type of genetic
information carried
 Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
 22 pairs of autosomes
Autosomes are all but the sex
 2 sex chromosomes ( X & Y)
 Sex Chromosomes
 Determine the sex of
the organism
 Also carry other
genetic information
 In humans, either X or
Y
 Females are XX, males
are XY
 Thus in humans, the
male chromosome
determines the sex of
the offspring
 Haploid vs. Diploid
 Cells with two copies of each
chromosome = diploid
 Autosomal cells are diploid
 Gametes (sex cells) have only one of
each type of chromosome
 Cells with one copy of each chromosome
= haploid
 Karyotypes
A picture of paired human chromosomes
 Used to to detect certain genetic
diseases
 Mitosis
 Theprocess of dividing the nuclear
material in a somatic cell in eukaryotes
 Necessary for cell division
 Preparation for Mitosis
 Interphase
 Thetime between the formation of a cell
through mitosis and the next mitosis
 Most of the cell cycle is interphase
 During this phase cell prepares by:
 replicating
genetic material
 producing organelles
 assembling structures needed for mitosis
 Chromosomes & Interphase
 During interphase chromosomes
cannot be distinguished under the
light microscope
 They appear as chromatin
 Atthe start of mitosis, the chromatin
thickens, and chromosomes become
visible
 The Cell Cycle
 The sequence of cell growth and division
 The cell cycle can last several hours to
several days
 Can be affected by environmental factors,
like temperature
 Has 4 stages:
 mitosis & division of cytoplasm
(cytokinesis)
 The other 3 are part of interphase:
G1
S
G2
Picturing the Cell Cycle
 G1 - Growth
 After mitosis, a period of intense
cellular activity and growth
 The cell doubles in size
 Enzyme production is high
 Cells that stop growing remain in G1
 S- Synthesis
  Cellsthat divide enter S, or
synthesis, phase
  The chromosomes replicate
 G2 – Further Growth
A second period of growth
 Structures used in mitosis are
assembled
 The Phases of Mitosis

 Mitosisis actually a continuous process

 But we divide it into 4 phases:
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
 Prophase
 60% of the period of mitosis is prophase
 Divided into 3 parts: early, middle, & late
 Chromosomes begin to coil into short rods
 Nucleoli break down & begin to disappear
 2 pairs of dark spots called centrosomes
appear outside the nuclear membrane
 In animal cells, the centrosomes contain centrioles,
formed from microtubules
 Plant cells have no centrioles

 The centrosomes move to opposite sides of

the cell
 Mid Prophase
 At the beginning of mid-prophase
spindle fibers form between the
centrioles
 Additional fibers radiating out from each
centriole form the aster
 The nuclear membrane has broken
down and disappeared
 The Mitotic Spindle
 Spindle fibers made of microtubules radiate
from the centrosomes
 This array of spindle fibers = the mitotic
spindle
 2 types of spindle fibers:
 Kinetechore fibers
 Attach to a disk-shaped protein called a
kinetechore
 Found in the centromere of each chromosome
 Extend from the kinetechore of each chromatid to
one of the centrosomes
 Polar fibers
 Extend across the dividing cell from one
 Late Prophase
 The centrosome pairs are at opposite
ends of the cell
 The centrosomes are fully formed
 Chromosomes are attached to the
centrosomes by spindle fibers
 Other spindle fibers stretch across the
cell from one centriole to the other
 Metaphase
 The chromosomes are pushed and
pulled by spindle fibers along cell's the
midplane
 called the equator
 Anaphase
 Begins with the separation of
chromatids in each chromosome
 Spindle fibers appear to shorten, pulling
the chromatids apart at the centomere
 Each chromatid is now a chromosome
 2 sets of separated chromosomes then
move through the cytoplasm to opposite
poles of the cell
 Telophase
 The last stage of mitosis
 After the individual chromosomes have
reached opposite poles of the cell, spindles
disappear
 A nuclear membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes
 Chromosomes return to a thread-like mass
 Centrioles duplicate
 2 centrioles formed in each daughter cell
 Nucleoli re-form within each newly formed
nucleus
 Cytokinesis
 The division of the cytoplasm
 Follows mitosis
  Cytokinesis begins during telophase
 In animal cells, the cell membrane
pinches together
 The area that pinches in and separates
is called the cleavage furrow
 In plants, a cell plate is formed, dividing
the two halves
Picturing Cytokinesis
 Chromosome Number
 Cells formed thru mitosis have the same
number of chromosomes as the parent
cells
 If combined in sexual reproduction, the
offspring would have 2x chromosomes!
 Therefore gametes have only half the
number of chromosomes of somatic
cells
 Gametes = sex cells
 Meiosis
 Gametes need another process
for nuclear division
 Meiosis reduces the number of
chromosomes to 1/2 the
number in somatic cells
Meiosis I & II
 Forming haploid
daughter cells from
diploid parent cells
requires two
successive cell
divisions:
 First = Meiosis I –
homologous
chromosomes
separate
 Second = Meiosis
II
chromatids of
each
 Meiosis I
 Preceded by replication of DNA that
forms the chromosome
 Synapsis = pairing of homologous
chromosomes
 Each pair of homologous chromosomes
twists around each other, forming a
structure called a tetrad
 Meiosis can be divided into same 4
phases as mitosis:
 Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
 Prophase I
 Chromatin begins to coil into short rods
  Homologous chromosomes are formed
  Spindle fibers appear
  Nucleoli break down
 By the end, the nuclear membrane has
dissolved, and tetrads are visible
 Crossing Over
 During synapsis, (prophase I) the
chromatids of homologous pairs twist
around each other
 A portion of one chromatid may break
off and reattach, “trading” with the
same piece from its homologous partner
 The exchange of genes by reciprocal
segments of homologous chromosomes
during meiosis = “crossing-over”
Crossing over between chromatids of
homologous pairs of chromosomes
 a d Centromer
tr e
e Chiasma
T

A chromosome in prophase of meiosis

showing chiasmata (49x)
 Crossing over
causes exchange
of genetic material
between maternal
& paternal
chromosomes
 Results in genetic
recombination
 Genetic
recombination is
less likely in genes
that are closer
together.
 Chromosome Mapping
 The likelihood that recombination will occur
due to crossing-over depends on the genes’
distance from each other on the
chromosome
 Scientists can determine how frequently
genes for particular traits occur together in
offspring
 This can be used to create a map of the
chromosome
 1% recombination (crossing-over) = 1 map
unit
 Metaphase I
 Tetrads line up along the equator of the
cell
 Each tetrad becomes attached to
spindle fibers
 Anaphase I

 Homologous chromosomes that form

each tetrad are pulled apart in pairs
 One pair goes to one end of the cell, the
other to opposite end
 Telophase I
 Chromosomes reach ends of the cell
 Cell divides into 2 daughter cells
 Independent Assortment
 During Anaphase I, one member of each
homologous chromosome pair moves to one
end of the cell, the other moves to the
opposite end
 The separation of homologous chromosomes
is random
 More, or fewer maternal (or paternal)
chromosomes may end up on one side or the
other
 Each separation is independent of the others
 This is the principal of independent
assortment of chromosomes
 Meiosis I Summary
 Meiosis I is a Reductive Division
 It reduces the number of chromosomes
from diploid "2n" to haploid "n"
 Meiosis II
 Similar to mitosis but not preceded by
replication of DNA
 4 Stages:
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
 Prophase II & Metaphase II
 Prophase II
A new spindle forms around paired
chromatids
 Metaphase II
 Chromosomes line up along the equator
 They are attached at the centromere to
spindle fibers
 Anaphase II
 Centromeres duplicate & the chromatids
separate
 Resulting single chromatids move to
opposite poles
 Chromatids are now called
chromosomes
 Telophase II
 A nuclear membrane forms around each
set of chromosomes
  The spindle breaks down and
cytokinesis occurs
  Result: 4 haploid daughter cells
 Males vs. Females
 In males, during spermatogenesis, all 4
daughter cells differentiate to become
sperm
  In females, during oogenesis the
cytoplasm divides unevenly in Meiosis I
 The smaller cell = first polar body
 doesn't survive
  In
Meiosis II, the division is again
unequal
 smaller half is second polar body
 So only 1 of 4 daughter cells survives
 rich in cytoplasm, has many nutrients to
 Comparing Mitosis & Meiosis
 MITOSIS  MEIOSIS

# of nuclear 1 2
divisions:
2 4
# of daughter cells:

diploid diploid
Parent cell type:

Daughter cell type: diploid haploid

Genetic likeness to identical different

 When Meiosis Goes Awry

 Whathappens when errors occur in

meiosis?
Human female bands
Human female karyotype
Human male bands
Human male karyotype
 Down Syndrome: An Extra
Chromosome 21
 Is a condition where an individual has an
extra chromosome 21
 Is also called trisomy 21
 The incidence of Down Syndrome
increases with the age of the mother
 How Accidents During Meiosis Can
Alter Chromosome Number

 In nondisjunction
 The members of a chromosome pair fail to
separate during anaphase
 Gametes with an incorrect number of
chromosomes are produced
 Meiosis I

Nondisjunction

Meiosis II

Nondisjunction

Gametes

n+1 n+1 n-1 n-1 n+1 n-1 n n

Number of chromosomes

(a) Nondisjunction in meiosis I (b) Nondisjunction in meiosis II

 The result of nondisjunction
Egg
cell

n+1

Sperm
cell

Zygote
2n + 1
n (normal)
Sex determination in humans
 Abnormal numbers of sex
chromosomes do not usually affect
survival
 Nondisjunction
can also produce
gametes with extra or missing sex
chromosomes
 Unusualnumbers of sex chromosomes
upset the genetic balance less than an
unusual number of autosomes
 Abnormal Numbers of Sex
Chromosomes
 Nondisjunction
 Also affects the sex chromosomes
Klinefelter’s karyotype
A man with Klinefelter syndrome has
one or more extra X chromosomes
Poor beard
growth

Breast
developme
nt

Under-
developed
testes
XYY karyotype
A woman with Turner syndrome lacks
an X chromosome Characteristic
facial
features
Web of
skin
Constriction
of aorta
Poor
breast
development

Under-
developed
ovaries
Alterations of chromosome structure
can cause birth defects and
cancer
 Chromosome breakage can lead to
rearrangements that can produce
genetic disorders or cancer
 Four types of rearrangement are deletion,
duplication, inversion, and translocation
 Deletion

Homologous
chromosomes
Duplication

Inversion

Reciprocal
translocation

Nonhomologous chromosomes
 Chromosomal changes in a somatic cell can cause
cancer
 A chromosomal translocation in the bone marrow is
associated with chronic myelogenous leukemia
Chromosome 9

Chromosome Reciprocal
22 translocation

“Philadelphia chromosome”

Activated cancer-causing gene

 Anchorage, cell density, and
chemical growth factors affect
cell division
 Most animal cells divide only when
stimulated, and others not at all
 In laboratory cultures, most normal
cells divide only when attached to a
surface
 They are anchorage dependent
 Cells
continue dividing until they
touch one another
 Thisis called density-dependent
inhibition
Cells anchor to dish
surface and divide

When cells have formed a

complete single layer, they stop
dividing (density-dependent
inhibition)

If some cells are scraped away,

the remaining cells divide to fill
the dish with a single layer and
then stop (density-dependent
inhibition)
 Growth factors are proteins secreted
by cells that stimulate other cells to
divide

After forming a single layer,

cells have stopped dividing

Providing an additional
supply of growth factors
stimulates further cell
division
Effect of Growth Factors
 Effect of
Density
 Density of cells
also effects the
rate of division
 Crowding
inhibits cell
division
 Control of Cell Division
 Timing and rate of cell division
varies in different cell types
 Control of rate of division is critical
 Some cells require regulatory
substances to begin division =
growth factors
 The Restriction Point
A crucial checkpoint occurs late in the
G1 phase of the cell cycle
 Point of decision to divide = restriction
point
 Cell cannot turn back after this point
 If it is “yes,” cell goes to S phase and
copies DNA
 If “no,” it goes to non-dividing state (G0)
 Most cells are in G0
 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control
system
 Proteins within the cell control the cell cycle
 Signals affecting critical checkpoints
determine whether the cell will go through
a complete cycle and divide
G1 checkpoint

Control
system

G2 checkpoint
 The binding of growth factors to specific
receptors on the plasma membrane is
usually necessary for cell division
Growth factor
Plasma
membrane

Relay
Receptor protein G1
protein s checkpoint
Signal Cell
transduction cycle
pathway control
system
 MPF
 After S, the cell
will enter G2
 The “OK” signal
that causes the
cell to proceed
from G2 to mitosis
= mitosis
promoting factor
(MPF)
A complex of
proteins
Cancer Cells: Growing Out of Control

 Normal plant and animal cells have a

cell cycle control system
 When the cell cycle control system
malfunctions
 Cells may reproduce at the wrong time or
place
 A benign tumor may form
 What Is Cancer?

 Cancer is caused by a breakdown in

control of the cell cycle
 Abnormal Cell Division
 Cancer cells do not respond normally to
the body’s control mechanisms for cell
division
 Cancer cells divide excessively
 Can invade other body tissues
 When a cell divides abnormally =
transformed
 Abnormal cells are usually destroyed by
 Cancer
 Ifabnormal cells are not destroyed and
reproduce, they may form a mass of
abnormal cells = tumor
 Benign tumor = abnormal cells remain at
the original site
 Malignant tumor = cells spread to other
parts of the body
 Metastasis = spread of cancer cells in
the body
  Cancer cells divide excessively
 Cancer cells spread from a malignant tumor
 Metastasis is the spread of cancer

Lymph
vessels

Tumor

Glandular
tissue
Metastasis
A tumor grows Cancer cells Cancer cells spread
from a single invade through lymph and blood
cancer cell neighboring vessels to other parts of
tissue. the body
Normal mammogram Mammogram of a cancerous breast
 Breast Cancer Cell

anning electron micrograph of a breast cancer cell, showin

an abnormally uneven surface and cytoplasmic projections
 Cancer Treatment

 Radiation therapy disrupts cell division

 Chemotherapy involves drugs that disrupt
cell division
 Surgical removal of tumor
 Cancer cells are often grown in
culture for study
 Cancer Prevention and Survival
 Cancer prevention includes changes in
lifestyle
 Not smoking
 Avoiding exposure to the sun
 Eating a high-fiber, low-fat diet
 Visiting the doctor regularly
 Performing regular self-examinations
 EVOLUTION CONNECTION:
NEW SPECIES FROM ERRORS IN
CELL DIVISION
 Errorsin meiosis may have been
instrumental in the evolution of many
species
 Polyploids
 Are new species
 Have more than two sets of homologous
chromosomes in each somatic cell

Tetraploid red viscacha rat?