CHAPTER-1

NETWORK NOISE
AND
INTERMODULATION DISTORTION
1
Basic Communication Model
Main purpose of an electronic communications system is to
transfer information from one place to another.
Electronic communications can be viewed as the transmission,
reception and processing of information between two or
more locations using electronic circuit/device.




2
What are we going to discuss ?

Types of Noise
Sources of noise
Parameters related to noise
Signal to Noise Ratio
Noise Figure
Noise Factor
Noise Temperature
Friss formula
Designing of Low noise amplifiers
Intermodulation Distortion
- Different terms related to intermodulation distortion

3
How do you characterize a receiver performance?
Sensitivity : (Minimum detectable signal)
That is the minimum power level at the point of transmission
that will ensure a final receiver output signal with acceptable
SNR
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
S/N ratio : average signal power
average noise power
The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio indicates the relative
strengths of the signal and the noise in a communication
system.
The stronger the signal and the weaker the noise, the
higher the S/N ratio.


4
Why should we study noise?
Noise Representation, types & source











5
Noise is an unwanted electrical signal that gets added to the
information signal as it is transmitted from one place to another.

It is not the same as interference from other information signals.

It modifies the electrical nature of the transmitted signal


Noise produces Hiss in the loudspeakers when you tune any AM or
FM receiver to any position between stations.
It is also the snow or confetti that is visible on a TV screen.
In pulse communication it may produce unwanted pulse which may
perhaps cancel out the wanted ones or which may cause some
serious mathematical errors

Effects of Noise?
Limits the range of communication

6

Places a limit on the weakest signal that can be
received and amplified by the receiver
( affects the sensitivity of the receiver)

Introduction of noise may also lead to reduction
of bandwidth of the system.
7
Classification of Noise

Depends upon the sources producing it
External noise
Internal noise
8
External noise
a. Atmospheric noise
b. Extraterrestrial noise
c. Industrial noise
Internal noise
a. Thermal noise
b. Shot noise
External Noise :
Noise created outside the receiver/ the communication
system
9
External noise comes from sources over which we have little or
no control, such as:

Atmospheric sources
The naturally occurring electrical disturbances in the
earths atmosphere tends to interfere with the reception
program
Example: Lighting discharges in the thunderstorms or
other electrical disturbances occurring in nature
These spurious signals induces voltages in antenna.


10
Extraterrestrial noise
also called as SPACE NOISE
-consists of electrical signal that originate from outside earths
atmosphere and therefore also known as deep-space noise.
-2 categories of extraterrestrial noise.
i solar noise noise that generated directly from the suns heat.
ii cosmic noise noise that is distributed throughout the galaxies.

The sun , stars, and other planets in the galaxy are at high
temperature and hence radiate RF noise which interferes with the
received signal. (GLACTIC NOISE)

Industrial noise (Man made noise)
source : automobile, aircraft ignition system.
Electric motors
Switching equipments
Leakage from high voltage lines
Heavy electric machines/motors
Fluorescent light



Frequency Ranges:

Atmospheric noise becomes less severe above about 30 MHz
Space noise is observable in the range from about 8MHz to
somewhat above 1.43 MHz
Industrial noise between 1 to 600 MHz.
11
Internal Noise
12

Electronic components in a receiver such as resistors,
diodes, and transistors are major sources of internal
noise.

Noise that generated within the device or circuit.

Types of internal noise include:
Thermal noise
Semiconductor noise(Shot Noise)
Thermal Noise / Resistor Noise

13

The noise created due to random motion of the electrons in a
conductor due to heat ( i.e. at any temperature above absolute
zero i.e. 0 Kelvin or -273
o
C.

Noise arises due to thermal cause hence called as THERMAL
NOISE




14
15
The rms value of the thermal noise generated in an impedance
Z(f) is given as



Thermal Noise / Resistor Noise Formula

Instantaneous Value is unpredictable.
Representation of Resistor Noise
16
Equivalent circuit of a noisy resistor

17
Available Thermal noise Power
( )
KTB
R
V
R
V
P
N N
= = =
4
2 /
2
2
How much amount of noise power will be given to the
load the noisy resistor
Analysis of a noisy resistor connected
to a linear network with frequency
dependent transfer function G(f)
18
G(f) is the transfer function of the network
It is the magnitude squared of the frequency dependent transfer
function between the input and the output voltages.
19
The total noise at the output of the network will be
given as.
Where,
Is referred to as the
noise bandwidth Bn of the
system
Problem:
Find the total output noise for the parallel
combination of R and C given below
20
Hints:
21
Find:
(1)
(2)
We get :
Substituting in (2) we get
Since standard form of noise voltage
is
Shot Noise / Active Device Noise
22
Is a phenomenon associated with the flow of current across a
semiconductor junction.
If Id is the average current, then the total diode
current i(t) will be given as
i(t) = Id + in (t)

Where, in (t) represents the noise/ fluctuating
component of the current.

Representation of shot noise in a diode
23
Represented by a appropriate current source in parallel with the
dynamic resistance of the barrier across which the noise
originated
Shot Noise Formula
24
Shot noise current spectral density :
Where, q is the charge on electron = 1.6 x 10
-12
C
I
o
is the direct current
k is a constant which varies from device to device
and also depends on how the junction is biased.
For junction transistor k=2
For junction diode/ transistor :
Total noise current over the given bandwidth :
Where, f is the bandwidth
Noise in Transistor Amplifiers
25
Transistor Amplifier
in
1
is the shot noise current density due to the i/p bias current
in
2
is the shot noise current density due to the bias current on the
o/p of the device.
en is the noise due to the load resistor R
L


in
1
= 2qI
B
A
2
/Hz , in
2
= 2qI
c
A
2
/Hz, e
n
= 4kTR
L
V
2
/Hz
Representation model of transistor amplifier with
the noise sources referenced to the input side of the
amplifer
26
Values of e
2
, e
3

27
Derivation
Assuming R
L
is much less than the transistor output impedance


Amplifier Voltage Gain is


(1)
(2)
Model or transistor amplifier with all
noise sources on the input side
28
Noise Parameters
Signal to Noise Ratio
Noise Figure
Noise Factor


29
Noise Parameters
1. Signal-to-noise Power Ratio

signal-to-noise power ratio (S/N) is the ratio of the average signal
power level to the average noise power level and can be expressed
as


in logarithmic function




in terms of voltages and resistance






30
n
s
P
P
N
S
=
n
s
P
P
dB
N
S
log 10 ) ( =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
R V
R V
dB
N
S
n
s
/
/
log 10 ) (
2
2
|
.
|

\
|
=
n
s
V
V
dB
N
S
log 20 ) (
2. Noise Factor
Noise factor is the ratio of input signal-to-
noise ratio to output signal-to-noise ratio
Receiver noise figure is a measure of how
much noise is added by the system

31
out
in
N S
N S
F
) / (
) / (
=
A low noise figure is always desirable.
32
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
out
in
N S
N S
F NF
) / (
) / (
log 10 log 10
Noise figure is the noise factor stated in dB and is a
parameter to indicate the quality of a receiver.

3. Noise Figure
Noise Factor
IEEE definition of noise factor

33
34
Noiseless Network
Minimum value of Noise factor ,F =1 (noiseless n/w)
i.e. No=Ni
The noise figure of a ideal noise less network = 0 db.
However, F is always greater than unity
A low noise figure is always desirable.

Noise added by the amplifier in terms
of noise factor ( F )
If Ni is the input noise ( noise due to source resistance)
If Si is the input signal (i/p s/g power due to source voltage)
If No is the noise at the o/p of the amplifier
If So is the signal at the output of the amplifier



35

Formula for Noise added by amplifier
Na = (F-1)KTB
36
Derivation ?
Noise factor of the amplifier
Gain of the amplifier
37
Value of
Substituting in P
no
we get
38
It is seen that the noise power at the output of the
amplifier is increased by F over what it would have
been if the amplifier was noiseless
39
Noise added by the amplifier (referred to the i/p)
Noise added by the amplifier as
referred on the i/p side.
Noise Factor and Noise Figure of cascade Amplifier

- when two or more amplifiers are cascaded as shown in the following figure,
the total noise factor is the accumulation of the individual noise factors.
- Friss formula is used to calculate the total noise factor of several cascade
amplifiers








40
N
N
T
A A A
F
A A
F
A
F
F F
...
1
...
1 1
2 1 2 1
3
1
2
1

+ +

+ =
Derivation?

41
Derivation

P
no
= G
2
[ G
1
F
1
KTB + ( F
2
1)KTB] ?
F
1
is the noise factor of amplifier A1
G
1
is the Gain of amplifier A1
F
2
is the noise factor of amplifier A2
G
2
is the Gain of amplifier A2
We shall first see the derivation for Pno
42
Total Noise referred the input of the amp A2 = O/p noise of amp. A1 + noise added by amp A2
P
ni2
= G
1
F
1
KTB + ( F
2
1)KTB
Output noise of Amplifier A2 will be
P
no
= G
2
[ G
1
F
1
KTB + ( F
2
1)KTB]
Overall Noise Factor of the cascaded
Network F
43
Overall Noise Factor
Overall Gain
Where.
Therefore
Where,
44
P
no
= G
2
[ G
1
F
1
KTB + ( F
2
1)KTB]
And P
ni
= KTB , G= G
1
G
2

Substituting all in
We get, the total noise factor of two cascaded
amplifiers as :
This argument can be extended to any number of amplifiers in
cascade which gives a total noise factor of :
45
N
N
T
G G G
F
G G
F
G
F
F F
...
1
...
1 1
2 1 2 1
3
1
2
1

+ +

+ =
FRISS Formula
46
Note:
- the Total Noise Figure


where,
47
T T F NF log 10 =
N
N
T
A A A
F
A A
F
A
F
F F
...
1
...
1 1
2 1 2 1
3
1
2
1

+ +

+ =
When using Friss formula, the noise figures must
be converted to noise factors !!!
Problem 1
48
Ans:
Noise Factor F = 1.779
Noise Figure NF = 2.5dB

Problem 2
49
For problem 1 what will be the total noise
power of the cascaded system in a 3-kHz
bandwidth? The opeating temperature is
290
o
K
Ans:
Total output noise power = 337 x 10
-17
W

Noise Temperature

50
Noise added by amplifier is considered to be the
noise added by a resistor which is as a fictious
temperature Tr, and the amplifier is now
considered to be noiseless.
4. Noise Temperature
Noise added by amplifier is
given by
51
Where T is the reference noise temperature
T
r
is referre to as system noise temperature

Formula
Derivation
Pn
a
=(F 1)KTB
Where the resistor noise equation is Pn = KTB
Resistor now being at fictious temp. Tr the eqn is Pn = KT
r
B
Therefore, KT
r
B = (F 1)KTB
T
r
= (F-1)KT

Overall Noise Temperature of cascaded
network
Friss Formula can be expressed in terms of
equivalent temp. Tr
Overall noise temp. of a cascaded network is
given by :
52
Problem
What is the variation in noise temperature as
the noise factor varies from 1 to 1.6 ( I,e NF
caries from 0 to 2 dB)? Assume the reference
temperature is 290K
53
Ans:
Tr = ( 1.6 -1) 290 = 174K
Note: The change is noise temperature is much greater than the
change in noise factor. This is the prime reason why noise
temperature is used to describe the system noise
5. Sensitivity
Denoted as S
i
and is also called as MINIMUM DETECTABLE SIGNAL/ SYSTEM SENSITIVITY
/ NOISE FLOOR

Definition:
For a given output Signal to Noise ratio (S/N)
o
,the available input signal level is
referred to as system sensitivity


54
Formula:



where, No is the total noise power at the output
So is the total signal power at the output




Note:
Sensitivity is always specified for a given signal-to-noise ratio


Derivation for Sensitivity
55
Problem:
What minimum input signal will give an output signal
to noise ratio of 0dB in a system that has an input
impedance equal to 50 , a noise figure (NF) of 8 dB,
and a bandwidth of 2.1kHz?
56
Ans:
10 log Si = NF -144+10 log B+10log(S/N)
o

Si = -133 dBm
Si= (Ei
2
/ 4 Rs) =5.02 x 10
-17
W
Ei=0.10V
That is, for the specifications given the noise floor for
an output signal to noise ratio of 1 is 0.10 V.
Problem:
What is the minimum detectable signal or the
noise floor of the system in the previous
example for a output signal to noise ratio of
10 dB
57
Ans:
Given data: (S/N)
o
= 10 dB
B=2.1kHz
10 log Si = NF -144+10 log B+10log(S/N)
o

Si = -123dBm
Si= (Ei
2
/ 4 Rs)
Ei=0.32 V
Problem
What is the minimum detectable signal level
of a communication receiver with a 50 input
impedance, of B of 3 kHz, and a 4dB noise
figure at an output signal to noise ratio of 10
dB
58
Ans:
Si = -125dBm = 3 x 10
-16
W
Ei=0.245 V
That is an input signal of 0.245 V will produce a 10 dB
output signal to noise ratio.
Design of Low Noise Network
59
Transistor amplifier
noise model.
Transistor amplifier
noise model with voltage source
Design Derivation
60
Total Noise referred to the input side in a unit bandwidth B=1, is
N = e
n
2
+ i
n
2
R
s
2
+ 4KTRs (1)
Na = e
n
2
+ i
n
2
R
s
2
(2)
Noise added by the network/amplifier
Amplifier equivalent
noise voltage sources

Design Derivation
Overall noise Factor of the network
61
F = Available input noise power + noise added
available input noise power

Network noise factor depends upon the source resistance Rs
Value of Rs that minimizes the noise factor can be found as
Contd:
62
Rs is chosen to minimize the spot noise factor at a specified
frequency.

Problem:
63
What will be the minimum noise figure for 741 operational
amplifier with a 10 kHz source resistance at 1kHz , the input
noise voltages are e
n
2
= 8 x 10
-16
V
2
/Hz, i
n
2
= 9 x 10
-25
A
2
/Hz

Formula:
Minimum noise factor F = 4.35
Minimum noise figure NF = 6.4 dB

Ans:
Problem
64
Find the noise factor for an 741 operational amplifier with a
10 kHz source resistance at 1kHz , the input noise voltages are
e
n
2
= 8 x 10
-16
V
2
/Hz, i
n
2
= 9 x 10
-25
A
2
/Hz

Formula:
Ans: F = 6.6
For Rs = 30 K, Minimum noise factor F = 4.35
For Rs = 10 K, F = 6.6
Noise Factor minimizes when the Rs increases
from 10K to 30 K
65
Another aspect of low noise design
Noise Factor

Signal to Noise ratio
66
By selecting high Rs
F is minimized (which is desirable)
S/N also has minimized(which is undesirable)

67
There fore ,
Minimizing the noise factor does not necessarily
maximize the S/N ratio
Solution:
Value of Rs should be such that it
simultaneously
1. minimizes noise factor and
2. maximizes the S/N ratio

Design
68
Source is transformer coupled to the amplifier i/p
In this case, Reflected source resistance
Equivalent source voltage
Output Signal to Noise Ratio
Contd:
The resistor value Rs which maximizes the S/N ratio and
minimizes the noise factor is found as follows:
69
gives:
This is the value of source resistance Rs which minimizes
the noise factor as well as maximizes the signal to noise
ratio
Noiseless transformer coupling can be used to match the
source to amplifier input, then the turn ratio that
minimizes the noise factor will also maximize the o/p s/n
ratio
Intermodulation Distortion
70
Effects of nonlinearity?
Harmonic distortion
Intermodulation distortion
Gain Compression



Terms related to IMD
IMR (Intermodulation Distortion Ratio)
Intercept point
Dynamic Range
SINAD
Explanation for IMD
A network nonlinearity can be described by the following
expression
71
f(x) is the input signal to the circuit
y(x) is the output signal to the circuit
Let the input f(x) consist of two sinusoids
Then the output y(x) will be
Ignoring the higher order terms
Contd.
Expanding the given eqn.
72
Contd: Effects of Nonlinearity
Amplitude of cos
1
t term which was A
1
now becomes
73
Gain Compression ?
Normally K
3
will be negative
If A
2
cos
2
t is of large amplitude
1. It will mask a smaller signal A
1
cos
1
t
2. It results in a reduced gain because of the third order
term coefficient K
3
. ( This effect is known as GAIN
COMPRESSION)
How to avoid Gain Compression ?
The third order coefficient K
3
must be reduced.
Multiple signals at the input must be avoided as it leads to
further reduction of gain
74
1 dB Compression Point
The K
3
term causes gain to deviate
from the idealized linear curve
The point at which the power gain is
down by 1dB from the ideal is
referred to as 1-dB compression
point.
Significance
Receivers must be operated below
their gain compression point if the
nonlinear gain region is to be
avoided
If only one signal is present at the input the
reduction in gain from amplitude A
1
to A
1

is known
as the SINGLE TONE GAIN COMPRESSION FACTOR
given by
75
Single Tone Gain Compression Factor
Harmonic Distortion
76
Harmonic Distortion occurs when unwanted harmonics of
signal are produced through nonlinear amplification.
Harmonics are integer multiples of the original signal.
The original signal is the first harmonic (fundamental
harmonic), a frequency two times the fundamental
frequency is the second harmonic, three times is the third
harmonic and so on.
Second Harmonic Distortion
The receiver output due to k
2
term
If a single signal is present at the receiver
input, then the amplitude of the second
harmonic is
77
Intermodulation Distortion
Distortion caused due to cubic term
Cubic term creates INTERMODULATION FREQUENCIES


78
The frequencies which lie within the system
passband and appear at the output as signal
distortion are

Intermodulation Distortion Ratio (IMR)
Desired Output: K
1
A
1
Intermodulation distortion terms are



79
Amplitude of Intermodulation distortion terms are



Definition:
IMR is defined as the ratio of the amplitude of one of the
intermodulation terms to the amplitude of the desired
output signal



Intercept Point
Intermodulation Power
(IMD):
80
Rearranging,
Intermodulation Power P
d
:
81
Therefore
IMD power varies as cube of the input power.
i.e. for every 1 dB increase in the input power there
is a 3 dB increase in the power of the
intermodulation terms
On Log scale the IMD power increases 3 times as fast
as the expected output power.

Intermodulation Distortion Power is given as
P
i
is the power in one signal component
K
d
is called the scale factor where, Kd = (3/4 ) (K
3
/K
1
)
Significance
82
IMD Power is given as
Out put Power contributed by
linear term is given as
Plot of output
power
v/s
input power
What is INTERCEPT POINT (P
i
)?
The value of input power for which the IMD
power P
d
is equal to the output power Po
contributed by the linear term
83
At intercept point P
i,

P
d
= P
o

Significance of INTERCEPT POINT (P
i
)?
A measure of the distortion created in the receiver.
Ability to reject large amplitude signals that lie in the
close frequency proximity to a weak signal targeted
for reception.
Formula for INTERCEPT POINT (P
i
)?
84
IMD power (P
IMR
) is defined as
Substituting P
d
and P
o

We get ,
At P
i
, P
d
= P
o
and P
IMR
= 1
That is,
Since, At this signal level
Where,Ki = (K
d
/ K
1
2
) and Kd = (3/4 ) (K
3
/K
1
)
Problem :
If the intercept point of a system is +20dBm, what
is the IMR for an input signal power of 0dBm?
85
Formula :
In dB : P
IMR
=2 x (Pi dB P
I
dB)
Ans : P
IMR
= - 40 dBm
Dynamic Range:
86
87
SINAD:
Equivalent Noise Bandwidth, B
n

88
When noise is passed through a filter having a frequency
response, some of the noise power is rejected by the filter and
some is passed through to the output
The noise bandwidth of a non-ideal filter is defined as the
bandwidth of an ideal (rectangular) filter which will pass
the same noise power as the non-ideal filter.
Definition
Equivalent Noise Bandwidth f
89
The relationship between f and f3dB, the 3dB
frequency of the system,
The NBW is the frequency such that a rectangle defined by
H(max)
2
and B
n
has an area equal to the area under |H()|
2
.
Derivation of Noise Bandwidth
90
The relationship between f and f3dB, the 3dB
frequency of the system, depends on the number of
poles in the transfer function.
91
The noise bandwidth for a single pole filter
Example: A RC filter
Questions:
Define noise factor, noise figure, and sensitivity.
State and explain the sources of noise.
Explain the concept of equivalent noise bandwidth
What is intermodulation distortion? Discuss in detail the different
parameters that are related with intermodulation distortion.
Explain the noises that occur in active devices.
Derive the expression of the noise factor of n cascaded stages. What is the
significance of the first stage.
Explain the significance of 1dB compression point.
A receiver has 10 dB noise figure, 50 input impedance, a 5dBm two tone
intercept point (P
I
), and a 3.5 KHz bandwidth. What is the minimum
detectable signal for a 0 dB output signal to noise ratio? What is the
receivers dynamic range.

92