1

A linkage is a kinematic chain in which one of the links is

fixed to the ground which usually is the frame.
A linkage permits relative motion between its links and
may have one or more degree of freedom.
A linkage with zero or negative degree of freedom is a
structure which does not allow any relative motion
between the links.

2.1. FOURBAR LINKAGE
Fig 2.1 below shows four bar linkage
The conventional numbering system is to label the
ground or frame as link 1, & then to number links
clockwise around the mechanism loop



2. LINKAGES






Link 1: is the frame or ground; generally it is stationary.
Link 2: is the driver; may rotate or oscillate.
Link 3: is the coupler or connecting rod and undergoes
general plane motion.
Link 4: is the follower or driven element,
may rotate or oscillate depending on the rotary or oscillatory
motion of link 2, and on link dimensions.
These four bar links are joined by four revolute joints.
2
3
Four bar linkages are able to produce a variety of non-
uniform motion and can transmit large force.
The links of a four-bar mechanism should be
proportional in such a way that looking is avoided.






Position ABO
4
shows the case of locking.
For such a position link four can move in any of the two
directions as indicated in the figure.
4
2.1.1 Transmission Angle
The angle between the coupler 3 and the output link 4
(follower) is called the transmission angle.







The equation for the transmission angle can be derived
as follows. From fig 2.3




u cos 2 cos 2
4 3
2
4
2
3 2 2 1
2
2
2
1
2
r r r r r r r r z + = + =
5
From which we obtain the transmission angle.



In general, for good force transmission to the output link,
the transmission angle should be in the range of
40
o
< <140
o
.

( )
) 1 . 2 (
2
cos 2
cos
4 3
2 2 1
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
1
(

+
=

r r
r r r r r r u

6
2.1.2 Motion of a Four-Bar Mechanism
There are three basic types of motion which a four-bar linkage
can produce.
Crank-rocker :- to indicate that link 2 rotates and link 4 oscillates;
Double crank:- to indicate that both the driver and follower
rotate;
Double-rocker:- to indicate that both the driver and follower
oscillate through certain angles.
To determine whether a four-bar link will operate as one of the
above motion types, Grashoffs law is applied which is
stated as follows:
i) If the sum of the length of the longest and shortest links is
less than or equal to the sum of the lengths of the other two
links, then
a) Two different crank rockers will be formed when the shortest
link is the crank and either of the adjacent links is the fixed link.
7
b) a double crank will be formed when the shortest link is the fixed link;
c) a double rocker will be formed when the link opposite the shortest
link is the fixed link.
ii) If the sum of the lengths of the longest and shortest links is
greater than the sum of the lengths of the other two, only a
double-rocker mechanism will be formed.
2.1.3 Variation of the Four-Bar Linkage

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2.2 SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM
Slider-crank mechanism is basically a four-bar mechanism
with three revolute joints, or turning pairs and a prismatic joint
or a sliding pair.





In the slider crank mechanism, commonly
- link 1 is the frame, considered to be fixed;
- link 2 is the crank which is the driver (rotating motion);
- link 3 is the connecting rod, the link b/n the driver & follower;
- link 4 is the slider which is the driven element (reciprocating)
9
The slider crank mechanism converts rotary motion into
reciprocating motion and vice-versa.
It is commonly applied in internal combustion engines.
During a cycle there are two dead points A and A in which
the crank and the connecting rod are in line.
at the dead positions the crank can move in either direction unless
constrained by an external force.
In case of an engine the external constraint is provided by the remaining
cylinders and a flywheel.
2.2.1 Inversion of the Slider-Crank Mechanism
As many inversions are obtained as the number of links in the
original mechanism
N. B. that inversion of a mechanism does not change the
relative motion of the link, however, the absolute motion is
altered.
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11
2.3. THE SCOTCH YOKE
It is widely used as a sine and cosine generator, i.e. it is used
to produce harmonic motion.
It is also used to produce desired vibration.

12
The displacement of the slider x in moving from A to A is
given by

Substituting u = et, the displacement is


The velocity and acceleration of the follower is

) 2 . 2 ( ) cos 1 ( cos u u = = r r r x
) 3 . 2 ( ) cos 1 ( t r x e =
) 5 . 2 ( cos cos
) 4 . 2 ( sin sin
2 2
2
2
u e e e
u e e e
r t r
t d
x d
a
r t r
dt
dx
v
= = =
= = =
13
2.4 QUICK-RETURN MECHANISM
Give a quick return-stroke of the follower for a constant
angular velocity of the driver.
The ratio of the crank angle for the working stroke to that
of the return stroke is known as the time-ratio.
The time ratio for quick return mechanisms is always
greater than unity to give a slower cutting stroke and a
faster return stroke.

1 > =
stroke return of angle
stroke cutting of angle
ratio time
14
2.4.1 Crank-Shaper Mechanism
The figure below shows schematic
representation of six-bar crank-shaper
mechanism.
Links 1-4 of this mechanism form a
variation of the slider-crank
mechanism in which the crank is held
fixed.
For the direction of motion indicated in
the figure,
the cutting stroke occures when the
crank rotates from O
2
A to O
2
A
through angle o,
the idle stroke being when the crank
moves from O
2
A to O
2
A through the
angle |.

15
For constant angular speed of the crank, the time ratio Q is
given by


And for constant angular velocity e
2
of link 2,


where o = e
2
t
w
and | = e
2
t
r

Length of stroke of the tool holder C is given by






) 6 . 2 (
r
w
t
t
stroke return of time
stroke cutting of time
Q = =
) 7 . 2 (
|
o
= Q
|
.
|

\
|
=
' =
' ' ' =
90 -
2
Bsin 2O
D B 2
B B stroke of length
4
o
) 8 . 2 (
O O
A O
B 2O stroke of length
4 2
2
4
=
16
2.4.2 Drag Link
Developed by connecting two four bar linkages in series.
For a constant angular velocity of link 2, link 4 will rotate at a non-
uniform velocity.
time ratio Q is:



|
o
= Q
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2.4.3 Whitworth Mechanism
Another variation of the slider crank mechanism in which the
crank is held fixed
Commonly used in shaping and slotting machines
Time ratio Q is:




|
o
= Q
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2.5 Toggle Mechanisms
Simple toggle consists of two links which tend to line-up in a straight
line at one point in their motion.
The mechanical advantage of the simple toggle above is the velocity
ratio of the input point A to the output point B








Mechanical advantage =

As => 90
o
, CA & AB come in to toggle
Used in punch presses, riveting machines, stone crusher, etc
( )
B
A
A
B
v
v
y
x
F
F
= = = o tan
19
2.5.1 Stone Crusher
The stone crusher shown uses two
toggle linkages in series
=> high mechanical advantage.
When links 2 and 3 are in toggle,
links 4 & 5 are also in toggle
=> produce high crushing force needed.


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2.6. Straight Line Mechanism
These are mechanisms which can generate straight lines from rotary
motion.
Point on one of the links moves in a straight line with out the need of
guides.
Converts rotary motion into straight line motion.

2.6.1 Watt mechanism
Produces an approximate straight line motion
For equal lengths of links 2 & 4, the tracing point P traces an
approximate straight line.

This will happen if AP/PB = O
4
B/O
2
A.

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22
2.7. Parallel Mechanism
Used to produce parallel motions & reproducing motions at different
scale.
Common examples
Pantograph
Drafting machine



2.7.1. The Pantograph
Used to enlarge or reduce trajectories to different scales.
Commonly used in cutting tools to duplicate complicated shapes to
desired scales.
Links 2, 3, 4, & 5 form a parallelogram
Link 3 is extended to contain point C and point E lies on the
intersection of lines O
2
C and DB.
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A pen attached at E reproduces the movement of C to a reduced
scale and vise versa i.e. the motion of E is parallel to that of C.
To produce this parallel motion the necessary condition to be
satisfied for all positions of C is




=>for any position of C, triangle O
2
DE is similar to triangle CBE.
=>


The ratio of the sizes of the figures at C and E is



.
2
2
const
E O
C O
=
.
2 2
const
CB
D O
EC
E O
= =
E O
C O
E at figure of size
C at figure of size
2
2
=
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Another example of parallel mechanism is found in
drafting machine.
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2.8. INTERMITTENT MOTION MECHANISM
Converts continuous motion into
intermittent motion.
Common examples are the Geneva wheel
& ratchet mechanism.
2.8.1. Geneva Mechanism.
Provides intermittent rotary motion.
During one cycle of the crank, the Geneva
wheel rotates through fraction part of a
revolution.
The circular segment attached to the crank
locks the wheel against rotation when the
roller is not engaged.
Angle | is half the angle subtended by
adjacent slots.
where n=number of slots.
Let r
2
=the crank radius, the center
distance C is:

n 2
360
= |
| sin
2
r
C =
26
Locking-slid Geneva







Ratchet Mechanism
Used to produce intermittent circular motion from an oscillating
or reciprocating member and/or to allow rotational motion in one
direction alone.
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2.9. STEERING GEAR MECHANISM
Used to change the direction of the wheel axle with respect to the
chassis which enables motion of an automobile in any desired
direction.







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To avoid skidding or slipping of the wheels sideways, the front
two wheels must turn about the same instantaneous center C
which lies on the axis of the back wheels.
This avoids undue wear in the tires.
This is also the condition for correct steering
this will be satisfied if u > |. Where: u is inner wheel turning angle
| is outer wheel turning angle.
the condition to be satisfied is obtained as follows.




And the condition for correct steering is obtained to be


this is the fundamental equation for correct steering which, if
satisfied, eliminates skidding of the front wheel.
b
x
OC
BO
Cot = = u
b
a x
OC
AO
Cot
+
= = |
b
a
Cot Cot = u |
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2.9.1 Ackerman Steering Gear
Consists of a four bar mechanism joined by revolute joints.
The shorter links QR and PS are of equal length and are
connected to the front wheel axles by hinge joints.
Links PQ and RS are of unequal length.