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Presented by Weldon Mak Makela Senior Failure Analysis Engineer Materials Testing & Analysis Group, Element St. Paul
What is steel?
Steel is iron with small amounts of carbon and other elements added to impart unique properties in the material. Pure iron is soft, ductile and has low strength. Steel is made by reducing iron ore to iron, which contains carbon and other impurities. Further refining reduces the impurities, controls carbon and other element content. Steels consist of iron with varying amounts of carbon:
Carbon content varies from 0.02-1.25%. Carbon is the primary elemental addition to increase strength. Carbon allows for heat treatment to increase strength.
Carbon Steels
The most common metal used to manufacture products.
Low-carbon steels: Carbon content varies from 0.05% to 0.30%. Medium-carbon steels: Carbon content varies from 0.30% to 0.60%. High-carbon steels: Carbon content varies from 0.60% to 0.95%.
Low-Alloy Steels
Elements are added to modify the basic carbon steel compositions to provide superior properties. Manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel and molybdenum are the most common additions to form low-alloy steels. Vanadium, niobium, aluminum, tungsten, copper and other elements are added to provide additional specific characteristics. Total elemental additions are less than 10%. Properties enhanced by alloying: Hardenability - the ability to be strengthened through heat treatment. Toughness - the ability to withstand impact loads. Environmental resistance - weathering and other corrosive environments. Elevated temperature resistance.
Resulfurized, rephosphorized or leaded steels: Sulfur, phosphorous or lead are intentionally added to improve machineability.
Low-alloy steels: Controlled additions of elements are utilized to enhance properties and to provide specific characteristics. Structural steels: All steels could be used as structural steels but we will focus on a group called the High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steels.
Classification of Steels
Classification can depend on: Compositioncarbon, low-alloy, tool or stainless steels. Manufacturing methodopen hearth, basic oxygen, electric furnace, vacuum processed. Finishing methodhot or cold rolled, cold finished, cold drawn. Product formbar, plate, sheet, strip, wire, tubing, or structural shape. Deoxidation practicekilled, semikilled, capped or rimmed. Microstructureferritic, pearlitic, or martensitic. Strength levelspecified in ASTM or other standards. Heat treatmentannealed, normalized, spherodized or quenched and tempered. Quality descriptorscommercial, forging, drawing, or aircraft quality.
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute designation is slowly disappearing. SAE Society of Automotive Engineers is more common. UNS Unified Numbering System is a worldwide designation for composition of metals and alloys. For example: UNS G10200 is the designation for SAE 1020 carbon steel.
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Nickel-Chromium Steels
Molybdenum Steels
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Cr Steels
50xx 51xx
50xxx 51xxx 52xxx 61xx 72xx
Cr=0.27, 0.40, 0.50, 0.65 Cr=0.80, 0.87, 0.92, 0.95, 1.00, 1.05
C=1.0% Min., Cr=0.50 C=1.0% Min., Cr=1.02 C=1.0% Min., Cr=1.45 Cr=0.60, 0.80, 0.95, V=0.10 %, 0.15 % Min. W=1.75, Cr=0.75
Cr - Bearing Steels
Si-Mn Steels
92xx
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13
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120
100
80 KSI
Tensile Strength
60 Yield Strength
40
20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %
15
100
80
KSI
60
Tensile Strength
Yield Strength
40
20
16
17
Mn <1.0%
30
20 10 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %
Mn >1.0%
18
100
KSI
80
60
40
20
19
120
100
80 KSI
60
Hot Rolled
Cold Drawn
40
20
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
20
Hot Rolled
Cold Drawn
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Rockwell C Ultimate Tensile Hardness, HRC Strength, ksi. 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 301 255 214 182 157 136 120 108
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2. The transition temperature can be shifted by alloy additions: - Manganese and silicon will lower the DBTT. - Sulfur and phosphorous will raise the DBTT.
3. The energy absorbed can be altered by alloy additions: - Nickel will increase the toughness at low temperatures. - Chromium, molybdenum and copper indirectly increase absorbed energy through hardenability enhancement.
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 23
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Structural Steels
High-strength carbon and low-alloy steels having yield strengths greater than 275 MPa (40 ksi) and can be classified as follows: As-rolled carbon-manganese steels (13XX and 15XX). Heat-treated carbon steels.* Heat-treated low-alloy steels.* As-rolled high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels, also know as microalloyed steels. *Notice that we have been talking about carbon and low-alloy steels, but now they are heat treated for use as high-strength structural steel.
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Specifications, continued
Most existing specifications have been prepared by engineering societies, associations, and institutions whose members make, specify, purchase and/or use steel products. Some common ones are listed below: Association of American Railroads AAR American Bureau of Shipbuilding ABS American Railway Engineering Association AREA American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASME American Petroleum Institute API American Society for Testing and Materials ASTM Society of Automotive Engineers SAE Aerospace Material Specifications (of SAE) AMS Federal and Military Specifications FED and MIL
Foreign countries have their own material and process specification systems, such as the DIN, JIS, BS, AFNOR, UNI, etc. Many of these specifications reference some ASTM specifications.
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Specifications, continued
ASTM is the most widely used specification system because they are complete for procurement purposes. Most ASTM specs include composition, mechanical, dimensional, quality and testing requirements, or reference other ASTM specs that cover specific aspects of a material. ASTM specifications are used worldwide. Some federal and military procurements are gradually transitioning to ASTM specifications. Material descriptions use common SAE-AISI designations but also include the UNS system to identify a material composition. A common ASME specification is referred to as the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. This code is the authority for any application involving the design and construction of boilers, pressure vessels and associated piping, including nuclear applications. Many ASME material specifications closely parallel ASTM.
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Weldon Mak Makela Senior Failure Analyst 651 659 7275 weldon.makela@element.com
Mark Eggers Inside Sales, NDT & Metals 651 659 7349 mark.eggers@element.com
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