Cell to Cell Communication:

Chemical
Autocrine & Paracrine: local signaling Endocrine system: distant, diffuse target

Electrical
Gap junction: local Nervous system: fast, specific, distant target

Paracrines and Autocrines

Local communication Signal chemicals diffuse to target Example: Cytokines
Autocrinereceptor on same cell Paracrine neighboring cells

Figure 6-1c: Direct and local cell-to-cell communication

Long Distance Communication: Hormones

Signal Chemicals Made in endocrine cells Transported via blood Receptors on target cells

Figure 6-2a: Long distance cell-to-cell communication

Long Distance Communication: Neurons and Neurohormones

Neurons
Electrical signal down axon Signal molecule (neurotransmitter) to target cell

Neurohormones
Chemical and electrical signals down axon Hormone transported via blood to target

Figure 6-2 b: Long distance cell-to-cell communication

Long Distance Communication: Neurons and Neurohormones

Figure 6-2b, c: Long distance cell-to-cell communication

Gap Junctions and CAMs

Protein channels connexin Direct flow to neighbor
Electrical- ions (charge) Signal chemicals

CAMs
Need direct surface contact Signal chemical
Figure 6-1a, b: Direct and local cell-to-cell communication

Signal Pathways
Signal molecule (ligand) Receptor Intracellular signal Target protein Response

Figure 6-3: Signal pathways

Endocrine Reflex Pathways: Overview

Figure 7-9: Hormones may have multiple stimuli for their release

 Cytosolic or Nuclear

Receptor locations

Lipophilic ligand enters cell Often activates gene Slower response

Cell membrane
Lipophobic ligand can't enter cell Outer surface receptor Fast response

Figure 6-4: Target cell receptors

 Membrane associated enzymes

External reactions Internal reactions

Receptors bind specific ligand

Example: Hormones Cell recognition molecules

Figure 5-6: Cell membrane receptor

Homeostasis & Controls

Successful compensation
Homeostasis reestablished

Failure to compensate
Pathophysiology
Illness Death
Figure 1-5: Homeostasis

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Uses chemical signals for cell to cell communication Coordinates the function of cells Response to an endocrine signal occurs within minutes to hours

Chemical Regulating Systems: Overview Pheromones: organism to organism communication Hormones: cell to cell communication molecules
Made in gland(s) or cells Transported by blood Distant target tissue receptors Activates physiological response

HORMONE CLASSIFICATION Protein and polypeptide

Amine
Steroid

PEPTIDE HORMONES Consist of specific amino acids

Synthesized as large precursor proteins Stored in membrane-enclosed compartments Hydrophillic

Protein and Polypeptide Hormone Receptors

Surface receptor Hormone binds Transduction Enzyme activation Open channels Second messenger systems Synthesis
Figure 7-5: Membrane receptors for peptide hormones

Amine Hormones

Receptors
Surface Intracellular

Small size, OH group Benzine ring Examples

Thyroxin Epinephrine

STEROID HORMONES Precursor: Cholesterol

Lipophillic Immediately released from the cell following synthesis

Steroid Hormones
Cytoplasmic or nuclear receptors (mostly)

Activate DNA for protein synthesis

Slower acting, longer half-life Examples: cortisol, estrogen & testosterone

Steroid Hormones: Action

Figure 7-7: Steroid hormone action

Summary of the Endocrine System

Figure 7-2-1: ANATOMY SUMMARY: Hormones

HYPOTHALAMUS
Integrates functions that maintain chemical and temperature homeostasis Functions with the limbic system Controls the release of hormones from the anterior and posterior pituitary

HYPOTHALAMUS
Synthesizes hypophysiotropic hormones in cell bodies of neurons located in the hypothalamus Transports hormones down the axon and stored in the nerve endings Secretion of hormones is in pulses

HYPOTHALAMUS: Secretion of Hypophysiotropic Hormones

Is influenced by emotions Can be influenced by the metabolic state of the individual Delivered to the anterior pituitary via the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system Usually initiates a three-hormone sequence

Figure 11-3: Autonomic control centers in the brain

HYPOTHALAMUS
Synthesizes & releases hypophysiotropic hormones:
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) Prolactin-releasing factor (PRF) Prolactin-inhibitn hormone (PIH)

Endocrine Control: Three Levels of Integration

Figure 7-13: Hormones of the hypothalamic-anterior pituitary pathway

Negative Feedback Controls: Long & Short Loop Reflexes

Figure 7-14: Negative feedback loops in the hypothalamicanterior pituitary pathway

Negative Feedback Controls: Long & Short Loop Reflexes

Figure 7-15: Control pathway for cortisol secretion

ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES Growth Hormone (GH, Somatotropin): primary hormone responsible for regulating body growth, and is important in metabolism

Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH): stimulates secretion of thyroid hormone & growth of thyroid gland

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): stimulates cortisol secretion by the adrenal cortex & promotes growth of adrenal cortex

ANTERIOR PITUITARY
Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH): Females: stimulates growth & development of ovarian follicles, promotes secretion of estrogen by ovaries. Males: required for sperm production Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Females: responsible for ovulation, formation of corpus luteum in the ovary, and regulation of ovarian secretion of female sex hormones. Males: stimulates cell in the testes to secrete testosterone Prolactin: Females: stimulates breast development and milk production. Males: involved in testicular function

Endocrine Control: Three Levels of Integration

Hypothalamic stimulationfrom CNS Pituitary stimulationfrom hypothalamic trophic Hs Endocrine gland stimulationfrom pituitary trophic Hs

Pathologies: Over or Under Production

Figure 7-19: Negative feedback by exogenous cortisol

POSTERIOR PITUITARY
Comprised of the endings of axons from cell bodies in the hypothalamus (supraoptic and paraventricular) Axons pass from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary via the hypothalamohypophysial tract Posterior pituitary hormones are synthesized in the cell bodies of neurons in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei

POSTERIOR PITUITARY Hormones synthesized in the hypothalamus are transported down the axons to the endings in the posterior pituitary

Hormones are stored in vesicles in the posterior pituitary until release into the circulation

Principal Hormones: Vasopressin & Oxytocin

Figure 7-12: Synthesis, storage, and release of posterior pituitary hormones

POSTERIOR PITUITARY

Oxytocin: Synthesized as the precursor hormone: prepro-oxyphysin Action primarily on the breasts and uterus of Increases contraction of smooth muscle Vas Deferens

POSTERIOR PITUITARY Vasopressin Plasma osmolality is monitored by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus Increases in plasma osmolality stimulates secretion of vasopressin Small changes above normal plasma osmotic pressure ( 285 mosm/kg) stimulate release of vasopressin

POSTERIOR PITUITARY

Vasopressin secretion also stimulated by: 1. Large decreases in blood volume

2.

Decreases in blood pressure

POSTERIOR PITUITARY

Vasopression Action: Decreases water excretion by kidneys (V2 receptors) Constricts blood vessels (V1 receptors) Increases adrenocorticortropin Hormone (V1B receptors)