Haseeb Ullah Khan Jatoi Department of Chemical Engineering UET Lahore

Non-Destructive

Testing (NDT)

Using Physical Material Properties Radiography (Radiations); Dye Penetrant (Color);

Ultrasonic (Ultrasounds); Magnetic Particle for cracks (Magnetic)

Destructive

Testing (DT)

Utilizing mechanical properties

Push, Pull, Indent, Twist etc involved

material with the highest electrical conductivity in the world is of little utility if its mechanical properties are not adequate to allow it to be formed into wire, bent round a switch lug, and held with a screw

A force distributed over an area

Stress = = F/A Measured in N/m2 or Lb/inch2 Strength is the materials ability to accommodate stress Stress measured at fracture becomes designated strength

of material (depending on load application mode used) Room temperature tensile strength of 1133 steel is 55 to 57 MPa Shear strength of 1133 steel is 22 to 23 MPa Compressive strength of 1133 steel is 59 to 61 MPa

 Specimens are pulled, bent, twisted, compressed and sheared until they break

 Strain

is the change in length occurring in material with applied stress In the beginning, material reverts back to original shape when stress is lower (Elasticity) As test proceeds, stress increases, and length within gage region becomes longer Stress-strain curve is linear hitherto, and slope is called Elastic Modulus

 Material

exhibiting linear stress-strain curve in the elastic range are Hookean (after Robert Hooke) Modulus of Elasticity = E = stress/ strain Over a range of stresses this curve begins to deviate from linearity This transition from linearity occurs at a point called proportional limit Material may exhibit non-linear elastic behavior above proportional limit (Non-Hookean)

 Further

stress applied takes material toward plastic deformation Releasing the stress at this point makes the material to be elongated from original length, called Plastic deformation This point of transition from elastic to plastic is termed Elastic limit, or Yield point Measured at an offset strain of 0.2% as this point is difficult to measure

 Further

stress decreases the cross sectional area as length elongates Material continues to harden and gets stronger, at the same time reducing cross sectional area, reducing the load-carrying capacity Force curve reaches a peak, called ultimate tensile strength At this point, reduction in cross sectional area occurs in a pronounced localized spot, called Necking Ultimately, sample fractures into two halves

 Two

measurements made:

Final length of gage area is measured Final diameter of the necked-down portion of

sample is measured

measure of materials ability to be stretched or drawn It is typically reported as percent elongation or percent reduction in area
Percent

Elongation = More this % elongation, more the ductility Similarly, % reduction in area =
InitialArea FinalArea InitialArea

FinalLength InitialLength InitialLength

 Engineering Stress-strain curve: The stress values in engineering stress-strain curves

are calculated by dividing the force measured during tensile test by original cross sectional area of specimen. Similarly, strain is also calculated for original length
True Stress-strain curve: The stress is calculated by dividing the force

measured during the tensile test by actual or instantaneous cross-sectional area of the specimen. Similarly, strain is calculated with instantaneous gage length

true = Kntrue

 When

material is plastically deformed, interactions with dislocations in materials structure can cause the material to become stronger and harder. This phenomenon is Work hardening, or Strain hardening
true = Kntrue (True curve on graph) true = true stress true = true strain K = strength coefficient n = strain hardening exponent

 The

strain hardening exponent n is a parameter that defines a materials tendency to work harden when plastically deformed A material with high n will become very strong when plastically deformed, whereas the strength of material with a low n does not increase significantly with plastic deformation

 Modulus

of elasticity Yield strength Ultimate tensile strength Ultimate strength/yield strength (work hardening) Percent elongation Percent reduction in area General shape of curve to evaluate properties

 Resilience

is the property that defines a materials ability to absorb elastic energy Area under the elastic portion of stressstrain curve provides an indication of materials resilience

 The

ability of the material to absorb energy before fracturing Total area under the stress-strain curve up to the point of fracture is toughness of the material

 Shear

stress measured in tensile tester using special grips Shear yield strength 57.7% of tensile yield strength (Mises-Henskey distortion energy theory for ductile material
failure)

s = Gs
s
= shear stress,

= shear strain,

G = shear modulus

The shear modulus is an important

property for calculating the stiffness or rigidity

 Applying

stress-strain relation in chemical engineering design (Examples) Iron and steel