Atmospheric Circulation

Moving things around on present day Earth

Short-term cycles

Long term (organic)

Long term - rock (inorganic/tectonic)

Global cycles
Biogeochemical cycles are the major way that elements are moved on Earths surface Driven by solar input (primary production) Elements cycle between reservoirs that operate on different time scales Cycles have positive and negative feedbacks and subject to perturbations Interaction with physical processes through tectonic/rock cycles Oceans and atmosphere are important conduits transporting matter and energy

Oceans & Atmosphere

Shorter timescales of exchange Exchange time in atmosphere hours to decades
Mediates rapid cycling between oceans and continents

Exchange time in oceans

Surface and deep water years Deep circulation 100s to 1000s of years

Atmosphere & Ocean

Gases and water freely exchange at the oceanatmosphere interface Movement of air (and water) by wind help minimize worldwide temperature extremes. Weather is influenced by the movement of water in air (state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place) Climate is the long-term average of the weather in an area

In general
Atmosphere exchanges material with biota and oceans rapidly Cycles that include an atmospheric component tend to have more rapid recycling (N and C) Cycles without an atmospheric component can be slower (immobile) because tied to geological cycles (P)

Atmosphere
Major conduit for transport between oceans and land
Major role in controlling climate (heat transport)

Composition evolved as a result of evolution of life

Changing due to human activities Well-mixed so harbinger of global change

Structure layered Held on earths surface by gravity

Mt. Everest (8,850 m)

Atmosphere structure
0oC Mesosphere
Pressure decreases with altitude 1 atmosphere of pressure at Earths surface at sea level.

30 mi Stratopause

40 km Ozone Dry Stratosphere

20 m

20 km -55oC Weather zone Water Vapor

80% of atmospheric mass is in the troposphere

10 m Tropopause Troposphere

20oC

Structure of the Atmosphere

Troposphere is densest and is where our weather occurs Substances in the stratosphere persist for long periods because there are few removal processes In troposphere, temperature decreases with altitude In stratosphere, temperature increases with altitude due to interactions with particles and radiation from the sun The ozone layer is within the stratosphere
Ozone absorbs UV at top of stratosphere

Troposphere
Well-mixed Limited exchange with overlying stratosphere Heated by long-wave radiation (heat) reradiated from Earths surface
Temperature decreases with altitude in troposphere

Heating from below results in convection, remember?

Rising warm air creates thermal instability

Composition of the atmosphere

78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen Other elements make up < 1% Air is never completely dry and water can be up to 4% of its volume. Residence time of water vapor in the atmosphere is ~10 days.

also H2S, H2, (CH3)S

Atmosphere
N2 fairly inert; long residence time (20 my) O2 accumulated over time; complex controls; shorter residence time (~10,000 years) CO2 trace constituent; complex controls; short residence time (~3 years)
- Affected by processes with cycles at various timescales (from rock to seasonal) - Long-term variations - Greenhouse

Atmosphere
Trace constituents reduced gases
Microbially produced at present and removed in rain/oxidation Greenhouse gases

Ozone stratosphere
Problematic in troposphere

Water vapor
Varies tremendously Important in distributing heat Greenhouse gas

Properties of the atmosphere

Air has mass (and density) Molecular movement associated with heat causes the same mass of warm air to occupy more space than cool air. So, warm air is less dense. Humid air is less dense than dry air at the same temperature because molecules of water vapor (H2O) weigh less than N2 and O2 molecules displaced.

Density structure of troposphere

Influenced by temperature and water content Water vapor is less dense than dry air so causes density of air to decrease and air to rise Warming air makes it less dense so it rises Condensation of water vapor releases heat which warms the air Warm air can hold more water vapor than cold air

Air density affected by pressure

Air lifted to altitude experiences less pressure so expands and cools Air compressed as it descends from altitude warms

Air movement
Water vapor rises, expands and cools Condenses into clouds or precipitation (cooler air cant hold as much water) Atmosphere can lose water by precipitation As air loses water vapor it becomes more dense and air will then fall, compress and heat

Atmospheric circulation
Powered by sunlight uneven solar heating About 51% of incoming energy is absorbed by Earths land and water Energy absorption varies depending on the angle of approach, the sea state and the presence of ice or other covering (e.g., foam)

Heat budget
Energy imbalance more energy comes in at the equator than at the poles 51% of the short-wave radiation (light) striking land is converted to longer-wave radiation (heat) and transferred into the atmosphere by conduction, radiation and evaporation. Eventually, atmosphere, land and ocean radiate heat back to space as long-wave radiation (heat) Input and outflow of heat comprise the earths heat budget We assume thermal equilibrium (Earth is not getting warmer or cooler) or the overall heat budget of the earth is balanced

Atmospheric circulation
Uneven solar heating of earth
Atm and oceans move heat poleward Air moves from high pressure to low pressure Poleward movement of warm air (less dense) Equatorward movement of cold air (more dense)

Movement of heat
Sensible heat
Transported by a body that has higher temperature than its surroundings (conduction and/or convection)

Latent heat
Phase changes of water Evaporation takes up heat and condensation releases heat

Uneven solar heating

Heat budget for particular latitudes is NOT balanced Sunlight reaching polar latitudes is spread over a greater area (less radiation per unit area) At poles, light goes through more atmosphere so approaches surface at a low angle favoring reflection Tropical latitudes get greater radiation per unit area and light passes through less atmosphere so they get more solar energy than polar areas

Solar radiation Radiation hits the earth in

parallel rays Incident angle varies with latitude Energy is spread out over more area
Less heat per area
N

Passes through more atmosphere

Which absorbs radiation

Poles are cooler because they receive lower intensity solar radiation do to angle of incident radiation.

Solar radiation
Second reason the poles are cooler is the tilt of the earth on its axis
Variation in daylength Even when poles have long daylength, the incident angle is long.
23.5o N

Third reason is that poles are farther from the sun

Fig. 4-1

Fig. 4-2

Seasons & solar heating

Mid-latitudes N Hemisphere receives 3x the amount of solar energy per day in June than in December Due to the 23.5o tilt of Earths rotational axis N Hemisphere tilts toward the sun in June and away in December Tilt causes seasons

Figs. 4-15 and 4-16

Circulation
Atmospheric and oceanic circulation are governed by the redistribution of this energy Water moves heat between tropics to poles Ocean currents and water vapor move heat. Higher latent heat of vaporization means vapor transfers more heat per unit mass than liquid water.

Atmospheric circulation
Warm air rises and cool air sinks Warm air expands and rises Expansion causes cooling and contraction causing increasing density and sinking Air will rise where its warmer and sink where its cooler

Convection

Logically on the earth, one can imagine this

Fig. 13.11

Fig. 4-25

Air movement
Air is warmed at equator so rises As it rises, it dumps its moisture because its expanded and cooled Air moves south to replace air thats risen Creates zone of low pressure (sinking air creates high pressure and rising air creates low pressure.

Fig. 4-3

Atmospheric circulation
But, this is NOT what happens Atmospheric circulation is governed not only by uneven solar heating but, The Earths rotation Eastward (CCW) rotation of the Earth on its axis deflects moving air or water (or any object with mass). CORIOLIS effect (1835)

Coriolis Effect
Rotation of the Earth CCW Relative speeds of sphere at different latitudes Caused by an observers moving frame of reference on a spinning Earth Curve is slightly to the right of initial path in the northern hemisphere Curve is slightly to the left of initial path in the southern hemisphere

Relative speeds of objects at different radii moving at the same angular speed

Airplane Coriolis

Coriolis effect and atmospheric circulation

Coriolis effect influences wind direction End up with 3 sets of cells by 30 deg, flow has been deflected 90 deg Air is deflected before getting all the way from equator to poles Air only makes it about 1/3 of the way to the poles before it becomes dense enough to sink Descending air turns back toward equator when it reaches the surface because it is again deflected to the right Heats up when it gets back to equator and rises again.

Fig. 4-11

Fig. 4-7
Hadley Cell Hadley Cell

Fig. 4-6

Fig. 4-18

Fig. 4-19 Pressure at sea-level (mbars)

Atmospheric circulation & precipitation

Air carries water vapor In general, uplift of air masses induces precipitation Conversely, descending air affects distribution of deserts Descending arms of Hadley cells Continental interiors Leeward (downwind) of mountains West coasts of major continents due to upwelling and offshore currents

Deserts offset from convergence zones where there is high precipitation. Deserts at divergence zones.

Features of the model

At boundaries, air is moving vertically
Surface winds are weak and erratic

Equatorial region
Lots of rain as humid air rises and loses moisture (rain forests) Doldrums Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) winds converge

30oN and S region

Sinking air is arid and evaporation >> precipitation (deserts and high salinity) Horse latitudes

Features of the model

Air moves horizontally within the cells from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure Tropical areas Hadley cells
Surface winds are strong and dependable Trade winds or easterlies centered at ~15oN (northeast trade winds) and ~ 15oS (southeast trade winds) Surface wind moves from horse latitudes to doldrums so come out of northeast in N hemisphere

Mid-latitude areas Ferrel cells

Westerlies centered at ~ 45oN and ~45oS Surface wind moves from horse latitudes to polar cells so comes out of southwest in the N hemisphere

The 6-celled model

Not exactly correct either North - South variation Land versus water distribution
Equator to pole flow of air different depending on amount of land at a particular longitude ITCZ narrower and more consistent over land than ocean Seasonal differences greater in N hemisphere (remember, more land)

The oceans thermostatic effect reduces irregularities due to surface conditions at different longitudes

Distributions of land masses -Differential heating and cooling -Land heats up and cools more rapidly

North - South variation (cont)

Offset at the equator
Geographical vs. meteorological equator Meteorological equator is ~ 5oN of geographical equator (thermal equilibrium between hemispheres) Meteorological equator and ITCZ generally coincide and change with seasons (moves N in northern summer) Atmospheric and oceanic circulation is symmetrical around the meteorological equator NOT the geographical equator!

Seasonality

Seasonality important Shifts in polar front and the ITCZ meteorological equator

West-East variations
Air over chilled continents becomes cold and dense in the winter Air sinks creating high pressure over continents Air over relatively warmer waters rises (possibly with water vapor) creating low pressure zones over water Air flows from high pressure to low pressure modifying air flow within cells Reverse situation in summer Effects pronounced in N hemisphere (mid-latitudes) where there is about the same amount of land & water

Winds over the Pacific on two days in Sept 1996 Stronger winds in redorange Notes: Deviates from 6-cell model

Strong westerlies hitting Canada

Strong tradewinds (easterlies) over Hawaii Extratropical cyclone east of New Zealand

Circulation of the Atmosphere

Most of the variation from the 6-cell model is due to
Geographical distribution of landmasses Different response of land and ocean to solar heating Chaotic flow

Over long term 6-cell model is pretty good for describing average flow

 Major surface wind and pressure systems of the world and their weather These wind patterns move 2/3 of heat from tropics to poles.

Monsoons
Pattern of wind circulation that changes with the season Generally wet summers and dry winters Linked to different heat capacities of land and water and to N-S movement of the ITCZ

Wet season
In the spring, land heats (faster than water) Warm air over land rises creating low pressure Cool air flows from ocean to land This humid air heats and rises (rains form)

Dry Season
Land cools (faster than ocean) Air cools and sinks over land creating high pressure Dry surface wind moves seaward Warms and rises over water (with or without evaporation and rain over water)

Monsoons
Most intense over Asia where you have a huge land mass in the N and a huge ocean to the S Monsoon over India causes wet season (summer) from April October (up to 10 meters 425 inches of rain per year) Smaller monsoon in N America (Gulf of Mexico and SE)

Dry season

Wet season

ITCZ ITCZ

Sea and Land breezes

Daily changes in wind direction due to unequal heating and cooling of land versus water Warm air during day on land rises and cool air from sea moves onshore (with or without water vapor) Warmer air over water rises and cool air on land during the night sinks and moves offshore

Daytime Onshore Breeze

Nighttime Offshore Breeze

Fig. 4-17