Hypothalamus and its hormones, hormones of the pituitary gland

The hypothalamus
Hormonal (anterior portion) or nervous (posterior portion) control of the pituitary gland Hormones control secretion of hormones in the anterior pituitary

Releasing hormones (factors) Inhibitory hormones (factors)

Hormones secreted and transported to anterior pituitary through hypothalamic-hypophysial vessels to pituitary sinuses Nerves Magnocellular neurons in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus axoplasm transport of hormones from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary

Name Corticotropinreleasing hormone

Other Names Corticotropinreleasing factor, Corticoliberin

Abbreviations

Location parvocellular neuroendocrine neurons in the paraventricular nucleus

Function with vasopressin, stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH

CRH, CRF

Dopamine

Prolactin-inhibiting hormone

DA, PIH

neuroendocrine neurons of the arcuate nucleus

neuroendocrine neurons in the medial preoptic and arcuate nuclei arcuate nucleus neuroendocrine neurons neuroendocrine neurons of the periventricular nucleus

inhibits secretion of prolactin from the anterior pituitary

stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete LH and FSH stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete growth hormone inhibits secretion of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary

Gonadotropinreleasing hormone

Luteinising-hormone GnRH, LHRH releasing hormone

Growth hormonereleasing hormone

Growth-hormonereleasing factor, somatocrinin Growth hormoneinhibiting hormone, Somatotropin release-inhibiting factor

GHRH, GHRF, GRF

Somatostatin

SS, GHIH, SRIF

Thyrotropinreleasing hormone

Thyrotropinreleasing factor, Thyroliberin, Protirelin

TRH, TRF

parvocellular neuroendocrine stimulates anterior neurons in the pituitary to secrete paraventricular and TSH anterior hypothalamic nuclei

Hypothalamic-hypophysial portal system (1)

Special neurons in the hypothalamus synthesize and secrete the hypothalamic releasing and inhibitory hormones that control secretion of anterior pituitary These neurons originate in various parts of the hypothalamus and send their nerve fibers to the median eminence and tuber cinerreum (extension of hypothalamic tissue into the pituitary stalk) Hormones are secreted to the tissue fluids, absorbed into the hypothalamic-hypophysial portal system and transported to the sinuses of the anterior pituitary

Hypothalamic hormones controlling anterior pituitary gland (1)

Major hypothalamic releasing hormones: Thyreotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) causes release of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) causes release of adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) causes release of growth hormone Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) causes release of the 2 gonadotropic hormones (luteinizing and follicle-stimulating hormone)

Hypothalamic hormones controlling anterior pituitary gland (2)

Major hypothalamic inhibitory hormones: Growth hormone inhibitory hormone (GHIH) = SOMATOSTATIN inhibits release of growth hormone Prolactin inhibitory hormone (PIH) inhibits prolactin secretion

The pituitary gland

1 cm in diameter 0.5 1 g in weight In sella turcica (bony cavity at the base of the brain Connected to the hypothalamus via pituitary stalk Parts:

Adenohypophysis anterior Neurohypophysis - posterior Pars intermedia (almost absent in humans)

Hormones of the adenohypophysis (1)

Human growth hormone (hGH) affects protein formation, cell multiplication, cell differentiation Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) controls secretion of some of the adrenocortical hormones (affects metabolism of glucose, proteins and fats) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (STH) controls secretion of thyroxine and triodothyronine by the thyroid gland (controls rates of most intercellular chemical reactions of the entire body) Prolactin promotes mammary gland development and milk production Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone control growth of the ovaries and testes and their hormonal and reproductive functions

Hormones of the adenohypophysis (2)

Other hormones of adenohypohysis -Lipotropin (-LPH) function unknown -Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) stimulates melanin synthesis in melanocytes

Cell types in the anterior pituitary

Chromophobes mostly inactive cells with only few secretory granules Chromophils active secretory cells

Acidophils (stained with acidic dyes) Basophils (stained with basic dyes)
Hormones secreted hGH Prolactin ACTH TSH FSH, LH % of total secretory cells 50 10-30 10 5 20 Stain affinity Diameter of secretory granules (nm) 300-400 200 400-550 120-200 250-400

Cell type

Somatotrope Lactotrope Corticotrope Thyrotrope Gonadotrope

Acidophilic Acidophilic Basophilic Basophilic Basophilic

Hormones of Intermediate lobe

Melanocytes stimulating hormones (MSH) types , , .

In humans stimulate melanin synthesis in melanocytes In fish, amphibians and reptiles expand melanophores

- Lipotropin (LPH) and Corticotropin-like intermetiate lobe peptide (CLIP)

From prehormone POMC (pro-opiomelanocortin) Function unknown

Hormones of the neurohypophysis

Magnocellular neurons (long neurons) located in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus axoplasm transport of hormones from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary Hormones: Polypeptides with 9 amino acids ADH (vasopressin): Cys-Tyr-Phe-Gln-Asn-CysPro-Arg-GlyNH2 Oxytocin: Cys-Tyr-Ile-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-LeuGlyNH2 Similar structure, similar action

Cell types in the posterior pituitary

Pituicytes = glial-like cells

no hormone secretion supporting structure for terminal nerve fibers and endings

Axons of secretory neurons located in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus

ADH (vasopressin)

Formed primarily in the supraoptic nuclei Regulates water excretion by the kidneys

Increases the permeability of collecting tubules and ducts to water - water reabsorption concentrated urine Osmotic regulation osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus or somewhere near
Constrict arterioles throughout the entire body Blood volume (activated when decreased blood volume) stretch (volumoreceptors) in right atrium of the heart - baroreceptors in carotid, aortic and pulmonary regions

Causes vasoconstriction

Oxytocin

Formed primarily in the paraventricular nuclei Causes contraction of the pregnant uterus

Oxytocin plasma levels increase in the last stage of labor Cervix stimulation during labor elicit nervous signals to hypothalamus and the secretion of oxytocin increases The suckling stimuli cause signals to be transmitted through sensory nerves to the oxytocin neurons in the PV and SO nuclei of the hypothalamus. Oxytocin causes contraction of myoepithelial cells around the alveoli. In less than a minute after suckling started the milk begins to flow.

Aids the milk ejection by the breasts

Growth hormone (somatotropic hormone, somatotropin)

Chemical structure: small protein (191 amino acids) Function: hGH enhances body protein, uses up the fat stores and conserves carbohydrates

Increases rate of protein synthesis in most cells of the body Increases mobilization of fatty acids in the blood and increases use of the fatty acids for energy Decreases rate of glucose utilization throughout the body

hGH - Function (1) Increase in protein deposition

Enhancement of amino acid transport through the cell membrane to the interior of the cells
(more AAs available for protein synthesis)

Enhancement of RNA translation to cause protein synthesis by the ribosomes (even when
the AAs concentration are not increased)

Increase in nuclear translation of DNA to form RNA Decrease in catabolism of protein and amino acids

hGH - Function (2) Increase in fat utilization for energy

Causing release of fatty acids from adipose tissue (increase in fatty acid concentration in the body
fluid)

Enhancement of conversion of fatty acids to acetyl coenzyme A (subsequent utilization of it for

energy)

Ketogenic effect of hGH ketosis may occur when the amount of hGH is too high and causes great mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissue that requires large amount of acetoacetic acid formed by the liver (may cause
fatty liver)

hGH - Function (3) Decrease in carbohydrate utilization

Decrease in glucose uptake in tissues (skeletal muscle and

fat)

Increase in glucose production by the liver Increase in insulin secretion hGH has DIABETOGENIC EFFECT = growth hormone-induced insulin resistance attenuates insulins actions, such as:

To stimulate uptake and utilization of glucose in skeletal muscle and fat To inhibit glucose output by the liver

This leads to increase of glucose concentration in the blood and compensatory increase of insulin. Excess in hGH may cause metabolic disturbance similar to those found in patients with DM II.

hGH stimulates cartilage and bone growth

Cartilages and bones are the main tissues of hGH action Increased deposition of protein by the chondrocytic and osteogenic cells that cause bone growth Increased rate if reproduction of these cells Specific effect of converting chondrocytes into osteogenic cells (causing specific deposition of new bone) 2 principle mechanisms of bone growth: Growth in length (during development before closing the
epiphysal slit)

Growth in width (also after adolescence) hGH stimulates osteoblasts

Somatomedins

Secreted by the liver and other tissue based of the hGH stimulation Similar effect as insulin = IGF (insulin-like growth factors) Function: support the action of hGH (unclear is if the hGH may act without somatomedines or not) Types:

Somatomedin C = IGF I IGF II

Regulation of hGH secretion (1) - stimulation

hGH is secreted in pulsation increasing and
decreasing

Factors stimulating secretion:

Starvation (especially with protein deficiency) Hypoglycemia low fatty acids in the blood Exercise Excitement Trauma

The first 2 hrs of deep sleep (non-REM) Hormones:

GHRF = Growth hormone releasing factor Estrogens and androgens

Regulation of hGH secretion (2) - inhibition

Factors inhibiting secretion:

Hyperglycemia High fatty acids in the blood Aging Obesity

REM sleep Hormones:

GHIH = Growth hormone inhibitory hormone (Somatostatin) Exogenous growth hormones Somatomedins (IGF)

Abnormalities of hGH secretion (1) - hypofunction

Panhypopituitarism = decrease of secretion of all anterior pituitary hormones

Congenital Induced by tumor that destroys the gland Decrease of all or more than 1 hormone of anterior pituitary (the person does not reach sexual maturation = missing gonadal hormones) Decrease just in hGH only smaller person, but can maturate Missing somatomedins Due to: tumor or trombosis of the pituitary blood vessels Results in: hypothyroidism, decrease in glucocorticoids, suppression of gonadotropic hormones

Dwarfism

Panhypopituitarism in the adulthood

Abnormalities of hGH secretion (2) - hyperfunction

Gigantism increased growing (randomly) = giants

Due to: increased activity of somatotropes or tumor during development Giants have hyperglycemia (DM)

Acromegaly increased growing of acral parts of the body

Due to: increased activity of somatotropes or tumor after puberty (after closure the epiphysal slits) Bones grow only to thickness ( enlargement of hands and feet, membranous bones such as cranium, nose, supraorbital ridges, chin etc.