SEMICONDUCTORS AND ELECTRONICS

Semiconductors are materials whose electrical conductivities are higher than those of insulators but lower that those of conductors. Silicon, Germanium, Gallium, Arsenide, Indium, Antimonide and cadmium sulphide are some commonly used semiconductors. Semiconductors have negative temperature coefficients of resistance, i.e. as temperature increases resistivity deceases.

ENERGY BANDS IN INSULATORS & CONDUCTORS

ENERGY BANDS IN SEMICONDUCTORS

Forbidden band small for semiconductors. Less energy required for electron to move from valence to conduction band. A vacancy (hole) remains when an electron leaves the valence band. Hole acts as a positive charge carrier.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
Both silicon and germanium are tetravalent, i.e. each has four electrons (valence electrons) in their outermost shell. Both elements crystallize with a diamond-like structure, i.e. in such a way that each atom in the crystal is inside a tetrahedron formed by the four atoms which are closest to it. Each atom shares its four valence electrons with its four immediate neighbours, so that each atom is involved in four covalent bonds.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
At zero Kelvin all of the four valence electrons of each atom in the silicon crystal form part of the covalent bond with the four neighboring atoms. The valence band is completely full and the conduction band completely empty. The semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator because there are no conducting electrons present.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
At temperatures above zero Kelvin some of the valence electrons are able to break free from their bonds to become free conduction electrons. The vacancy that is left behind is referred to as a hole. This hole is treated as a positive carrier of charge. Conduction due solely to thermally generated electron-hole pairs is referred to as intrinsic conduction.

POSITIVE CHARGE CARRIER

An electron leaves its bond in position 7 (see i) and occupies the vacancy in position 6 (see ii). Hence the hole effectively moves from position 6 to position 7.

EXTRINSIC CONDUCTION
A pure or intrinsic conductor has thermally generated holes and electrons. However these are relatively few in number. An enormous increase in the number of charge carriers can by achieved by introducing impurities into the semiconductor in a controlled manner. The result is the formation of an extrinsic semiconductor. This process is referred to as doping. There are basically two types of impurities: donor impurities and acceptor impurities. Donor impurities are made up of atoms (arsenic for example) which have five valence electrons. Acceptor impurities are made up of atoms (gallium for example) which have three valence electrons.

Arsenic has 5 valence electrons, however, only 4 of them form part of covalent bonds. The 5th electron is then free to take part in conduction. The electrons are said to be the majority carriers and the holes are said to be the minority carriers.

N-TYPE EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

P-TYPE EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Gallium has 3 valence electrons, however, there are 4 covalent bonds to fill. The 4th bond therefore remains vacant producing a hole.

The holes are said to be the majority carriers and the electrons are said to be the minority carriers.

P-N JUNCTION DIODE

On its own a p-type or n-type semiconductor is not very useful. However when combined very useful devices can be made.

The p-n junction can be formed by allowing a p-type material to diffuse into a n-type region at high temperatures.
The p-n junction has led to many inventions like the diode, transistors and integrated circuits.

P-N Junction

Also known as a diode One of the basics of semiconductor technology Created by placing n-type and p-type material in close contact Diffusion - mobile charges (holes) in p-type combine with mobile charges (electrons) in ntype

P-N Junction

Region of charges left behind (dopants fixed in crystal lattice)

Group III in p-type (one less proton than Sinegative charge) Group IV in n-type (one more proton than Si positive charge)

Region is totally depleted of mobile charges depletion region

Electric field forms due to fixed charges in the depletion region Depletion region has high resistance due to lack

THE P-N JUNCTION

The Junction

The potential or voltage across the silicon changes in the depletion region and goes from + in the n region to in the p region

Biasing the P-N Diode

THINK OF THE DIODE AS A SWITCH

Forward Bias Applies - voltage to the n region and + voltage to the p region CURRENT!

Reverse Bias Applies + voltage to n region and voltage to p region NO CURRENT

P-N Junction Reverse Bias

positive voltage placed on n-type material electrons in n-type move closer to positive terminal, holes in p-type move closer to negative terminal width of depletion region increases allowed current is essentially zero (small drift current)

P-N Junction Forward Bias

positive voltage placed on p-type material holes in p-type move away from positive terminal, electrons in n-type move further from negative terminal depletion region becomes smaller - resistance of device decreases voltage increased until critical voltage is reached, depletion region disappears, current can flow freely

P-N Junction - V-I characteristics

Voltage-Current relationship for a p-n junction (diode)

Current-Voltage Characteristics

THE IDEAL DIODE Positive voltage yields finite current Negative voltage yields zero current REAL DIODE

I-V CHARACTERISTICS

I-V CHARACTERISTICS
When the diode is F.B., the current increases exponentially with voltage except for a small range close to the origin. When the diode is R.B., the reverse current is constant and independent of the applied reverse bias. Turn-on or cut-in (threshold) voltage V: for a F.B. diode it is the voltage when the current increases appreciably from zero. It is roughly equal to the barrier p.d.: For Ge, V ~ 0.2 0.4 V (at room temp.) For Si, V ~ 0.6 0.8 V (at room temp.)