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12.3 Dating with Radioactivity

Basic Atomic Structures
Orbiting the nucleus are electrons, which are negative electrical charges. Atomic number is the number of protons in the atoms nucleus. Mass number (nombor nukleon) is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atoms nucleus.
Nombor nukleon= bil.proton + bil.neutron Nombor atom= bil. proton= bil. elektron

12.3 Dating with Radioactivity

Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the spontaneous decay of certain unstable atomic nuclei.

Common Types of Radioactive Decay

Alpha Emission The three most common types of radioactive emission are alpha, beta and gamma. For example, when a Uranium-238 nucleus decays, it produces a Thorium-234 nucleus and a Helium-4 nucleus. That Helium-4 nucleus is called an alpha particle().

There are two important things to note here: The sum of the isotopic masses (top numbers) are equal on both sides of the equation. [238 =234 + 4] The sum of the atomic numbers (the bottom numbers) also are equal on both sides of the equation. [92 = 90 + 2]

Beta Emission The second type of radioactive emission is beta particle emission. A beta particle() is a fast moving electron. We use the symbol 0-1e. Note that the isotopic mass for the electron is considered to be zero because it is much, much less than that of a proton or neutron. While it does have mass, it is just too small to worry about. The electron's atomic number is "-1" because of the electron's negative charge. For example, Carbon-14 is used to date ancient objects like mummies, and it decays by beta emission.

Again, the top and bottom numbers are equal on both sides of the equation ([14 = 14 + 0] and [6 = 7 + -1]).

Electron Capture Another type of nuclear decay reaction is electron capture. The electrons involved in electron capture come from an atom's own electron cloud. It is like an electron crashes into the nucleus and causes a decay reaction. For example:

Electron capture is a type of naturally occuring decay. However, people have long sought to be able to change the nucleus. The alchemists tried to convert cheap metals like lead into gold. It was not until the 20th century that people actually suceeded.

12.3 Dating with Radioactivity

Half-Life
A half-life is the amount of time necessary for one-half of the nuclei in a sample to decay to a stable isotope.

The Half-Life Decay Curve

Nuclear Decay Thankfully, not all isotopes are radioactive. Many are stable and last practically forever. There are a few general rules to predict whether an isotope is stable or radioactive:

Small Nuclei - Atoms which contain up to 20 protons (up to Calcium) are usually stable.
Large Nuclei - Larger nuclei tend to be radioactive. All nuclei with more than 84 protons (Polonium and up) are radioactive. For example, all isotopes of Uranium are radioactive. Atoms with more neutrons than protons - There are radioactive nuclei that have less than 84 protons. These nuclei have more neutrons than protons. For example, Carbon-12 (6 protons and 6 neutrons) is stable, while Carbon-14 (6 protons and 7 neutrons) is radioactive.

12.3 Dating with Radioactivity

Radiometric Dating
Each radioactive isotope has been decaying at a constant rate since the formation of the rocks in which it occurs. Radiometric dating is the procedure of calculating the absolute ages of rocks and minerals that contain radioactive isotopes.

12.3 Dating with Radioactivity

Radiometric Dating
As a radioactive isotope decays, atoms of the daughter product are formed and accumulate. An accurate radiometric date can be obtained only if the mineral remained in a closed system during the entire period since its formation.

Isotopes Review

Isotopes - Atoms with the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons (same element, different isotopic mass) Example: Carbon can exist the isotopes carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14. They both have 6 protons (or else they wouldn't be carbon), but a different number of neutrons.

Radioactive Isotopes Frequently Used in Radiometric Dating

12.3 Dating with Radioactivity

Dating with Carbon-14 (C-14 method)
Radiocarbon dating is the method for determining age by comparing the amount of carbon-14 to the amount of carbon-12 in a sample. When an organism dies, the amount of carbon-14 it contains gradually decreases as it decays. By comparing the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in a sample, radiocarbon dates can be determined.

12.3 Dating with Radioactivity

Importance of Radiometric Dating
Radiometric dating has supported the ideas of James Hutton, Charles Darwin, and others who inferred that geologic time must be immense.

12.4 The Geologic Time Scale

Structure of the Time Scale
Based on their interpretations of the rock record, geologists have divided Earths 4.56-billion-year history into units that represent specific amounts of time. Taken together, these time spans make up the geologic time scale.

12.4 The Geologic Time Scale

Structure of the Time Scale
Eons represent the greatest expanses of time. Eons are divided into eras. Each era is subdivided into periods. Finally, periods are divided into smaller units called epochs. There are three eras within the Phanerozoic eon: the Paleozoic, which means ancient life, the Mesozoic, which means middle life, and the Cenozoic, which means recent life.

12.4 The Geologic Time Scale

Structure of the Time Scale
Each period within an era is characterized by somewhat less profound changes in life forms as compared with the changes that occur during an era. The periods of the Cenozoic era are divided into still smaller units called epochs, during which even less profound changes in life forms occur.

12.4 The Geologic Time Scale

Precambrian Time
During Precambrian time, there were fewer life forms. These life forms are more difficult to identify and the rocks have been disturbed often.

The Geologic Time Scale

12.4 The Geologic Time Scale

Difficulties With the Geologic Time Scale
A sedimentary rock may contain particles that contain radioactive isotopes, but these particles are not the same age as the rock in which they occur.
The age of a particular mineral in a metamorphic rock does not necessarily represent the time when the rock was first formed. Instead, the date may indicate when the rock was metamorphosed (transformationberubah bentuk).

Using Radiometric Methods to Help Date Sedimentary Rocks

Dating untuk lapisan enapan adalah selalunya ditentukan dengan memeriksa hubungan mereka terhadap batu igneus.