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Measurement Techniques

Content
2.1 Measurements
2.2 Errors and uncertainties
Learning Outcomes
(a) use techniques for the measurement of length, volume, angle,
mass, time, temperature and electrical quantities appropriate to the
ranges of magnitude implied by the relevant parts of the syllabus. In
particular
(1) measure lengths using a ruler, vernier scale and micrometer.
(2) measure weight and hence mass using spring and lever
balances.
(3) measure an angle using a protractor.
(4) measure time intervals using clocks, stopwatches and the
calibrated time-base of a cathode-ray oscilloscope (c.r.o).
(5) measure temperature using a thermometer as a sensor.
(6) use ammeters and voltmeters with appropriate scales.
(7) use a galvanometer in null methods.
(8) use a cathode-ray oscilloscope (c.r.o).
(9) use a calibrated Hall probe.
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* (b) use both analogue scales and digital displays.
* (c) use calibration curves.
(d) show an understanding of the distinction between
systematic errors (including zero errors) and random
errors.
(e) show an understanding of the distinction between
precision and accuracy.
* (f) assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple
addition of actual, fractional or percentage uncertainties (a
rigorous statistical treatment is not required)

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Introduction measurement & errors
All experiments are designed to obtain a quantitative result for a physical
quantity and it involve measurements
These measurements must be some combination of the base quantities
Measurements will be limited by the instruments available in the laboratory
Techniques must be acquired for the measurements of : length, volume,
angle, mass, time, temperature and electrical quantities.
It has to be assumed that the instruments are calibrated through
comparison, but the more difficult issue is determining which is the correct
instrument!
In the course of taking such measurements, errors are inevitable.
Error in a scientific measurement means, the inevitable uncertainty that
occurs, in all measurements arising from the limitations of the observer, the
measuring instrument used or the methods used or a combination
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Instruments & methods, of some measurements
Length
the metre rule
the micrometer screw gauge
the vernier caliper
Pressure
manometer
barometer
Mass
the top pan balance
the spring balance
the lever balance
current balance
Angle
protractor
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Time
the stop-clock
digital timer
Frequency
cathode ray oscilloscope, frequency counter
Temperature
mercury-in-glass thermometer
the thermocouple thermometer
Current & Voltage
analogue meters
galvanometer
digital meter, multi-meter
cathode ray oscilloscope
Magnetic flux density
Hall probe

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Methods of measuring length
The metre rule
Simplest length-measuring instrument is the metre or half metre rule (i.e
100 cm or 50 cm)
Smallest division on the metre rule is 1 mm
Should be able to take a reading with an uncertainty of 0.5 mm
It is good practice to always check the wooden or plastic ruler with an
engineers steel rule if one is available
Should be aware of 3 possible errors
End of the rule is worn out, giving an end error leading to something
called a systematic error
Calibration of the metre rule i.e. markings on the ruler are not accurate
Parallax error


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Methods of measuring length
The vernier caliper
Very versatile instrument used for measuring the dimensions of an
object, the dimensions of a hole, or the depth of a hole
Range is up to 100 mm (10 cm) and it can be read to 0.1 mm (0.01 cm)
or 0.05 mm depending on type of vernier
Should be aware of
Systematic zero error - very likely







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Methods of measuring length
The micrometer screw gauge
Used to measure the dimensions of objects up to a maximum of about 50 mm (5
cm)
On the barrel there are divisions every 0.5 mm
The screw advances exactly 1 mm for 2 revolutions i.e. the pitch of the screw is 0.5
mm or 500 m. Each revolution is 50 intervals
The graduations around the thimble run from 0 to 50 i.e. each division corresponds
to one hundredth of a mm, 0.01 mm or 10 m (0.001 cm)
The reading on the thimble is added to the reading on the barrel
If the micrometer is in doubt, it can be checked against a series of gauge blocks
Should be aware of
Systematic zero error - very likely







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Measurement of pressure
Difference in air/gas pressure can be measured by comparing the heights of
a liquid in the 2 arms of a U-tube. Instrument is called a manometer
The pressure of the gas is the difference in height, since pressure = hg
Aneroid barometer can be used to directly read pressure
Should be careful
to read the meniscus
if concave, read the bottom of the meniscus
if mercury, read the convex or top part of the meniscus
to ensure tube is vertical
of parallax error



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Measurement of mass
Instruments used are top-pan balance, lever balance and the spring balance
A balance compares the weight of the unknown mass with the weight of the
standard mass since weight is proportional to mass
Spring balance measures directly in force units i.e. Newton, but sometimes
in kilograms
Top-pan balance
ensure that the initial (unloaded) reading is zero
there is a control for adjusting the zero reading, balance may have a tare facility
i.e. mass of material added to the container is obtained directly
uncertainty will be quoted by manufacturer in the manual, usually as a
percentage of the reading shown on the scale
The spring balance
based on Hookes Law which states that extension is proportional to the load;
measurement is made directly by a moving over a circular scale
should be careful of zero error, usually has a zero error adjustment screw
parallax error
Lever balances
based on principle of moments where unknown mass is balanced by a slider,
calibrated in mass units
should be aware of zero error, parallax error
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Measurement of angle
Protractor
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Measurement of time
The stop-clock
Digital timer
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Measurement of frequency
Cathode ray oscilloscope
Frequency counter
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Measurement of temperature
Mercury-in-glass thermometer
Thermocouple
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Measurement of current & voltage
analogue meters
galvanometer
digital meters
multi-meters
cathode ray oscilloscope
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Measurement of magnetic flux density
The Hall effect when current flows through a semiconductor in a
magnetic field, the charge carriers(electrons) will experience a force and a
potential difference known as the Hall voltage will develop across the
semiconductor
The Hall probe
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Errors, terminology & types
Basically errors can be divided into two major types:
(a) round-off errors
Round-off errors are due to the rounding off of non-terminating
numbers, like t, to a certain number of decimal places or
significant figures.
(b) measurement errors.
Measurement errors are further divided into systematic and
random errors.

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Absolute, Relative and Percentage Errors
If a is the actual/mean value of a quantity and x is a measured value, then
the absolute error, e
x
, is = x a .
The relative error, r
x
is = e
x
/a.
The percentage relative error %r
x
= r
x
x 100%.
For example, if an object has an actual length of 47 cm, while its measured
length is 48 cm, then :
e
x
= |48 47| = 1 cm
r
x
= 1/47 = 0.021 3 sig fig
%r
x
= 0.02127 x 100 = 2% 1 sig fig
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Limits of Errors
The absolute error bounds are the limits between which the absolute error
lies. So, if e
x
s c where c > 0, then c is called the maximum absolute error
bound of x.
i.e. a = x c
where (x - c) and (x + c) are called the lower and upper bounds for a.
In general, the maximum absolute error bound c for a number measured
or rounded-off to a degree of accuracy of n decimal places is ( x10
-n
).
examples:
(1) A 50 kg cement bag measured to the nearest kg has a maximum
absolute error bound of 0.5 kg ( x 10
-0
) which gives it a measured
mass of (50.0 0.5) kg.
(2) If t is rounded-off to 3.14, then its value is (3.140 0.005) [ c = x
10
-2
].
The limit of precision of a measuring device is thus the smallest
division of measurement the device is able to display.
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Worked Example
An object weighs 3.2 kg on a weighing scale which is able to measure to
the nearest 0.1 kg.
Find the maximum value of the absolute error, the relative error and the
percentage error?
Solution
degree of accuracy = x 10
-1


Absolute error c = x 0.1 = 0.05 kg
Maximum relative error = 0.05/3.2 = 0.016
Maximum % error = 0.016 x 100% = 1.6 %
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Measurement Errors
Measurement errors arise because of the limit in the accuracy of the
instrument used and the physical constraints of the observer.
Measurement errors can be classified into two types:
systematic and random errors.
A systematic error causes a measurement to be consistently shifted in one
direction only (i.e. always too high or too low from its actual).
A random error has an equal chance of being too high or too low
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Systematic Errors

Systematic errors in the measurement of physical quantities are
uncertainties that are due to:
(a) instruments faults;
(b) faults in the surrounding conditions or
(c) mistakes made by the observer.
Systematic errors are not revealed or eliminated by repeated
measurements
Can be eliminated by calibration of the instrument used and by using
correct experimental and measurement techniques.
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Sources of systematic errors
The sources of systematic errors may be classified into the
following:
(a) Zero Errors
Zero errors occur if the reading on an instrument is not zero even
when it is not used to make any measurements. For examples:
(i) a stopwatch does not point to zero when it has been reset; (ii)
the micrometer screw gauge does not read zero when its gap is
closed.
(b) Personal Error of Observer
This error results from the physical constraints or limitation of an
individual: for example, the reaction time to an event which has
started a fraction of a second earlier.
(c) Errors due to Instruments
For examples: (i) A watch which is fast; (ii) An ammeter which is
used under different conditions from which it had been
calibrated.
(d) Errors due to Wrong Assumptions
For example, the value of g is assumed wrongly

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Random Errors
Random errors are uncertainties in a measurement made by the
observer or person who takes the measurement.
The characteristic of a random error is that it can be positive or
negative in absolute sense and its magnitude is not constant.
Random errors are unavoidable.
They can be minimised by taking a large number of measurements
under the same conditions and averaging the readings.
Sources of Random Errors
Errors due to parallax when reading a scale at an angled
position.
Errors due to different pressures being applied when using a
micrometer screw gauge to measure the diameter of a wire.
Errors due to changes in temperature while taking
measurements.
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Compound Errors

When evaluating or determining a particular physical quantity through
measurements of various other physical quantities related to it, errors for
the quantity are compounded and enlarged from errors made in the latter
quantities.
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Addition or Subtraction

Suppose that a physical quantity U is related to two other
physical quantities x and y as follows:
U = x + y
If ox and oy are the uncertainties in the measurement of x and y
respectively, then the uncertainty in the determination of U is:
oU = (ox + oy)
Also, if V = x y, then the error in the determination of V is:
oV = ( ox + oy)
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Worked Example
The internal diameter d1 and the external diameter d2 of a metal tube are
d1 = (45 1) mm and d2 = (60 2) mm.
What is the percentage uncertainty in the thickness of the tube ?
Solution
Thickness of the tube, t = d2 d1 = (60 45) mm = 15 mm
Uncertainty in t, ot = (o d1 + o d2) = (2 + 1) mm = 3 mm
percentage uncertainty in t:
ot/t x 100% = 3/15 x 100% = 20%
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Product

Suppose that U = xyz with errors in x, y and z as ox, oy and o z
respectively.
Then the maximum fractional error in U is:
oU/U = [ ox/x + oy/y + oz/z ]

Worked Example
The dimensions of a box are recorded as follows:
length, l = (5.0 0.2) cm
width, b = (4.0 0.1) cm
height, h = (8.0 0.2) cm
What is the maximum percentage error for the volume of the box ?
Solution
Volume of box = l x b x h = (5.0 x 4.0 x 8.0) cm = 160 cm

maximum percentage error in V:
oV/V x 100% = [ ol/l + ob/b + oh/h ] x 100%
= [ 0.2/5.0 + 0.1/4.0 + 0.2/8.0 ] x 100%
= 9 %
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Quotient

Suppose that U = x/y. If ox and oy are uncertainties in x and y
respectively
Then the maximum fractional error in U is:
oU/U = [ox/x + oy/y]

Worked Example
The mass of a block of metal is (11.5 0.5) kg and its volume is (1000
20) cm. How would you express the density of the metal?

Solution
Density, = M/V = 11.5/1000 = 1.15 x 10
-2
kg/cm
Maximum fractional error in :
o/ = [oM/M + oV/V] = [0.5/11.5 + 20/1000]
o = [0.5/11.5 + 20/1000] x (1.15 x 10
-2
)
= (0.07 x 10
-2
) kg/cm
density of metal, = (1.15 0.07) x 10
-2
kg/cm
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Example
The density of a metal cube is given by = mass/volume and is
calculated from the following data:
mass = 12.2 0.1 g
cube side l = 2.1 0.05 cm
What is the maximum possible error in (a) as a percentage of and (b)
absolute?
Solution
% V = 3(%l) =3 x ( 0.05/2.1 x 100%) = 7.1%
% = (%M + %V) = (0.1/12.2 x 100 + 7.1)%
= (0.82 + 7.1)%
= 7.92% = 8%

= mass/volume = 12.2/2.1
3
= 1.3 g/cm

maximum absolute error c = 8/100 x
= 8/100 x (12.2/2.1
3
)
= 0.106 g/cm
= 1.3 0.1 g/cm
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Example
Measurements x and y were given correct to two decimal places, as
x = 0.72 and y = 0.13.
Find the maximum value of x 2y ?
Solution
x 2y = x y y
Maximum error in each x and y = 0.5 x 10
-2
= 0.005
c(x-2y) = 0.005 + (2 x 0.005) = 0.015
Maximum value of x 2y = 0.72 (2 x 0.13) + 0.015
= 0.475
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Example
A rectangular field is measured as 212 m by 189 m, both distances being
given to the nearest metre. What is the maximum error in the area of the
field ?
Solution
Relative errors of both dimensions (e
x
/a ) are 0.5/212 and 0.5/189 due to
measurements to the nearest metre
(e
x
= x 10
0
)
maximum relative error in area = 0.5/212 + 0.5/189 = 0.005
maximum error = 0.005 x 212 x 189 = 200.34 = 200 m
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Precision, tolerance and accuracy
A precise measurement is one in which random errors are small.
Precision refers to the extent or limit of sensitivity of a given measuring
instrument to obtain the readings of the physical quantity being measured.
It also indicates the agreement among several measurements that have been
made in the same way.
example, readings of the same quantity that are close to each other are
considered precise.
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Precision, tolerance and accuracy
Tolerance is a measure of the degree of precision of the device. In the case
of a stopwatch, an uncertainty of 0.1 s is commonly used, while for the
metre rule 0.1 cm (1 mm), vernier caliper scale 0.01 cm (0.1 mm) and
micrometer screw gauge 0.001 cm (0.01 mm).
An accurate measurement is one in which systematic errors are small.
Accuracy refers to the degree of closeness of a measured quantity to its
true value. It is therefore given as a percentage error.
Accuracy depends on the magnitude of the measured quantity and the
precision of the instrument used.
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Accurate experiment
An accurate experiment is one for which the majority of the measured
values of a quantity are close to the true value.
A precise experiment is one which has a narrow spread of measured values
between the lower and upper limit of values.
As such, precise readings are not necessarily accurate readings.
example, if the zero reading of a micrometer screw gauge is not noted and
taken care of, measurements made using the gauge may be precise but
inaccurate. The readings may be higher (for positive zero error) or lower
(for negative zero error).
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Significant Digits/Figures

Significant figures are those digits in a measurement that are known with
certainty plus the first digit that is uncertain.
The degree of accuracy of a measured quantity can only be to the greatest
degree an instrument is able to measure. As such, any digit beyond that
can be measured is irrelevant or insignificant.
When stating any measured quantity, the following rules should apply:
Experimental uncertainties should almost always be rounded to one
significant figure. For example, g = 9.82 0.03 m/s and not 9.82
0.03385 m/s.
The last significant figure should usually be of the same order of
magnitude as the uncertainty. For example x = 6050 30 m/s and not
6051.78 30 m/s.
If the last significant digit is a 1 or 2 in a result, stating the answer with
one extra figure trailing the digit is more appropriate. For example, the
stated answer to calculated value 1415 correct to one significant figure
should be 1400 and not 1000.
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Significant Digits in Addition and Subtraction
When adding or subtracting measured quantities, the precision of the
answer can only be as great as the least precise term in the sum or
difference. All digits up to this limit of precision are significant.
Worked Example
If x = 3.76, y = 46.855 and z = 0.2. What is the correct value of x + y + z?
Solution
x + y + z = 3.76 + 46.855 + 0.2 = 50.815
largest value = 3.765 + 46.8555 + 0.25 = 50.8705
smallest value = 3.755 + 46.8545 + 0.15 = 50.7595
limit of precision 0.05 from x 10
-1

c = 50.8705 50.7595 = 0.1110/2 = 0.0555 > 0.05
Since c is greater than the limit of precision (0.05) for a one decimal
placing, the third digit ( .8 ) of the answer is itself uncertain.
correct value of x + y + z = 3.76 + 46.855 + 0.2 = 50.815 ~ 50.8

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Significant Digits in Multiplying and Dividing
When multiplying or dividing measured quantities, the number of
significant digits in the result generally can be only as great as the least
number of significant digits in any factor in the calculation.
Example
If l = 31.3, b = 28 and h = 51.85, what is the value of l x b x h?
Solution
l x b x h = 31.3 x 28 x 51.85 = 45,441.34 ~ 45,000
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Exercises
Measurements x, y and z are given correct to one decimal place as x = 2.12, y =
30.4, z = 9.7. Find the maximum errors in the following
(a) 2x + 3y 4z (b) xy (c) (x + y)/z
The four stages of a relay race take 21.3, 20.7, 19.5 and 23.1, all measurements
being given in seconds correct to one decimal place. What was the least possible
total time taken?
A distance of 53 miles (to the nearest mile) was driven at 55 m.p.h. ( to the nearest 5
m.p.h. ). What was the greatest and least values of the time taken.
The sides of a cuboid are 20.1, 19.3, 25,6, each measurement being given in
centimetres correct to one decimal place. Find the maximum values of the volume
and the surface area.
The density of the material of a rectangular block was determined by measuring the
mass and linear dimensions of the block. The the results obtained, together with their
uncertainties are
mass = ( 25.0 0.1 ) g ; length = ( 5.00 0.01 ) cm
breadth = ( 2.00 0.01 ) cm ; height = ( 1.00 0.01 ) cm
Calculate the density and uncertainty in this result. [ 2.50 0.05 ]
A student makes measurements from which he calculates the speed of sound as
327.66 m/s. He estimates that his result is accurate only to 3%. What should be the
speed to be reported expressed to the appropriate number of significant figures?
[ 330 m/s ]

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Choice of instrument, method etc
Consider the nature of the measurement you have to make
Consider the accuracy
Consider the sensitivity
With direct reading measurements , readings can be obtained quickly and
accurately
Availability of the instruments
Economics etc
In general all instruments should be kept clean and dry
Always use a container for lose objects or chemicals