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Introduction
Signals can be delivered from the transmitter to the receiver using a variety of means:
Metallic cable Optical fiber Radio transmission
Coaxial Lines
Two conductors are concentric, separated by an insulating dielectric Coaxial cables are unbalanced because of their lack of symmetry with regard to ground
Parallel Lines
Parallel lines are typically balanced lines, the impedance to ground from each of the wires being equal Balanced refers to the signals being the same level but opposite in polarity
The electrical characteristics of a transmission line become increasingly critical as the frequency of transmission increases Factors influencing transmission lines:
Resistance Skin effect Conductance of the dielectric Impedance Capacitance Inductance
Z0
R jL G jC
Characteristic Impedance
The characteristic impedance for any type of transmission line can be calculated by calculating the inductance and impedance per unit length
For a parallel line with an air dielectric the impedance is:
Z 0 276 log D r
138
r
log
D d
75 93
Velocity Factor
A signal moves down a transmission line at a finite rate, i.e. somewhat less than the speed of light The propagation velocity of a signal, compared to the speed of light, varies as follows:
Coaxial cable with polyethylene dielectric: 66% Coaxial cable with polyethylene foam dielectric: 78% Air-dielectric cable: 95%
Rather than specify the actual velocity, manufacturers specify the velocity factor The velocity factor for a transmission line depends almost entirely upon the dielectric
Reflections
In a line where the termination is equal to the impedance of the line, the reflections are zero A line that is terminated other than Z0 is said to be mismatched and will have reflections The reflection coefficient is found by:
Vr Vi
Traveling Waves
Standing Waves
The interaction of incident and reflected waves in a transmission line results in standing waves When a reflected wave is present but has lower amplitude than the incident, there will be no point on the line where the voltage or current remains zero over the whole cycle
Z jZ 0 tan
Variation of Impedance
Loss Mechanisms
The most obvious loss in a transmission line is due to the resistance of the line, called I2R loss The dielectric can also cause loss, with the conductance becoming higher with increasing frequency Open-wire systems can radiate energy
Loss becomes more significant as the frequency increases Loss becomes worse as spacing between conductors increases
Loss in Decibels
Transmission line losses are usually given in decibels per 100 feet or 100 meters When selecting a transmission line, attention must be paid to the losses A 3-dB loss equates to 1/2 the power being delivered to the antenna Losses are also important in receivers where low noise depends upon minimizing the losses before the first stage of amplification
Power Ratings
The maximum power that can be applied to a transmission line is limited by one of two things:
Power dissipation in the line A maximum voltage, which can break down the dielectric when exceeded
A compromise is often achieved in power lines between voltage and line impedance
Impedance Matching
Impedance mismatches are deleterious in transmission lines Mismatches result in power being reflected back to the source and in higher-than-normal voltages and currents that can stress the line Best results are obtained when the load is matched to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line Impedance matching can be accomplished by matching networks using:
Lumped constants (inductors, capacitors, transformers) Waveguide components Transmission line sections
Transmission-Line Measurements
Specialized test equipment is available to measure and evaluate transmission lines using these techniques:
Time-Domain Reflectometry The Slotted Line Standing-Wave-Ratio Meters and Directional Wattmeters