Motor Development

Transition from Reflex Movement

to Voluntary Movement

When babies are born, they are

not able to move much on their
own. Over time, a baby learns to
move many parts of its body and
control its muscles so it can hold
its head up, sit up by itself, stand
up, or pick up a toy.
The process of motor
development, however, does not
happen overnight. Like many
things, learning about the body
and making it move takes time.
Motor development is the
process of learning how to use
muscles in the body to move. The
progression of acquiring motor
skills goes from simple to
complex.
Motor development happens in a
predictable sequence of events
for most children, but each child
varies in age when each skill is
mastered. For example, although
most children begin to walk
independently around twelve to
fourteen months, some children
are walking as early as nine
months.
Further, children differ in terms of
the length of time it takes to
develop certain motor skills, such
as the baby who sits up, virtually
skips crawling, and begins
walking.
Principles of Development
The process of motor
development depends heavily on
the maturation of the central
nervous system and the muscular
system. As these systems
develop, an infant's ability to
move progresses. The sequence
of motor development follows an
apparently orderly pattern. Arnold
Gesell, a noted researcher in the
field of child development,
indicated through his studies that
development does not proceed in
a straight line.
Instead, it swings back and forth
between periods of rapid and
slower maturation. Gesell and his
colleagues also discovered from
their infant observations made in
the 1930s and 1940s that infant
growth does indeed follow distinct
developmental directions:
cephalocaudal, proximal-distal,
and general to specific.
Cephalocaudal Principle

First, most children develop from

head to toe, or cephalocaudal.
Initially, the head is disproportionately
larger than the other parts of the
infant's body. The cephalocaudal
theory states that muscular control
develops from the head downward:
first the neck, then the upper body
and the arms, then the lower trunk
and the legs.
Proximal-Distal Principle
Second, children develop their motor
skills from the center of their bodies
outward, near to far or proximal-
distal. This principle asserts that the
head and trunk develop before the
arms and legs, and the arms and
legs before the fingers and toes.
Babies learn to master control of
upper arms and upper legs, then
forearms and legs, then their hands
and feet, and finally fingers and toes.
General to Specific Principle
Lastly, the general to specific
development pattern is the progression
from the entire use of the body to the
use of specific body parts. This pattern
can be best seen through the learned
process of grasping. Just as the child
develops a more precise grasp with
time and experience, many other motor
skills are achieved simultaneously
throughout motor development. Each
important skill mastered by an infant is
considered a motor milestone.
Motor Milestones
Motor milestones are defined as
the major developmental tasks of
a period that depend on
movement by the muscles.
Examples of motor milestones
include the first time a baby sits
alone, takes a step, holds a toy,
rolls, crawls, or walks. As
discussed previously, the timing
of the accomplishment of each
motor milestone will vary with
each child.
"Motor milestones depend on
genetic factors, how the mother
and father progressed through
their own development,
maturation of the central nervous
system, skeletal and bone growth,
nutrition, environmental space,
physical health, stimulation,
freedom and mental health"
(Freiberg 1987; Paplia and
Wendkosolds 1987).
Within the motor milestones exist
two forms of motor development:
gross motor development and
fine motor development. These
two areas of motor development
allow an infant to progress from
being helpless and completely
dependent to being an
independently mobile child.
Gross Motor Development
Gross motor development
involves skills that require the
coordination of the large muscle
groups of the body, such as the
arms, legs, and trunk. Examples
of gross motor skills include
sitting, walking, rolling, standing,
and much more The infant's
gross motor activity is developed
from movements that began while
in the womb and from the
maturation of reflex behavior.
With experience, the infant slowly
learns head control, then torso or trunk
control, and then is rolling, sitting, and
eventually walking. The first year of a
baby's life is filled with major motor
milestones that are mastered quickly
when compared to the motor milestone
achievements of the rest of the baby's
development. In addition to the
development of gross motor skills, a
baby is simultaneously learning fine
motor skills.
Fine Motor Development
Fine motor development is concerned
with the coordination of the smaller
muscles of the body, including the
hands and face. Examples of fine
motor skills include holding a pencil to
write, buttoning a shirt, and turning
pages of a book. Fine motor skills use
the small muscles of both the hands
and the eyes for performance.
For the first few months, babies
spend a majority of time using
their eyes rather than their hands
to explore their environment.
Over time, babies learn how to
make smoother and coordinated
movements with their arms and
hands.
Delays in Gross Motor and Fine
Motor Development
When children are not able to
perform the motor skills at the
appropriate milestones, their
motor development may need to
be evaluated by a professional.
When motor skills do not
progress along a normal trend, a
child may be at risk for missing
out on potential learning and
social experiences.
Children who demonstrate
potential motor delays are at risk
for continuing these delays
throughout later development.
For example, a child who
demonstrates weak hand
strength and has difficulty
coordinating finger movement
may have trouble with
handwriting in school.
Assessment of Gross Motor and
Fine Motor Development
Many assessment tools exist to
measure a child's performance in
regard to gross and fine motor
skills. Each assessment requires
good observational skills from the
evaluator, who is typically a
developmental pediatrician,
nurse, educator, occupational
therapist, or physical therapist.
Some assessments call for each
item to be administered in a
formal standardized manner, so
that each child is tested the same
way every time. These tests are
also called normative-based
because they compare individual
performance to that of other
children. Other measures
encourage professionals to ask
parents questions about their
child and are based on informal
observations of the child at play.
These more informal tests are referred
to as criterion-based assessments
because they compare individual
performance to a criterion or standard.
Regardless of the type of assessment,
each measure has the common
purpose of evaluating the child's
current ability to perform motor-related
tasks. Professionals use the results of
these assessments to decide whether
intervention is needed and also to
guide goal setting and outcome
measurement.
Early Intervention
After 1986, legislation was
passed at the state level to set up
services that assist families who
suspect their child may have
some developmental delays.
These services are called early
intervention systems. The main
purpose of early intervention is to
offer evaluation and treatment to
children from birth to age three
and to their families.
The professionals involved with
early intervention are members of
a team who test a child's skills to
see where the child's current
skills are in relation to the
chronological age. Children who
are not doing many motor
activities typical of their age may
be considered at risk or delayed.
These children may not have the
strength, coordination, or balance
to do most things that others of
their age can do.
The professionals involved in
early intervention include
occupational therapists, physical
therapists, speech language
pathologists, special education
teachers, nurses, doctors, social
workers, and service
coordinators. Each of these
professionals help the child and
family learn about ways to
improve motor coordination so
the child can function more
independently.