Genes and bodyplans

2.1.6

Drosophila development
At first, no new cell membranes form and a multinucleate syncytium is formed. After the 8th division the 256 nuclei migrate to the outer part and by the 11th division the nuclei form an outer layer around a central, yolk - filled core. The division rate slows and the nuclear genes switch from replicating to transcribing. The plasma membrane folds inwards around the 6000 nuclei and the resulting cells from a single outer layer. After another 2-3 hours the embryo divides into a series of segments. These correspond to the orgnasim's organisation or body plan. 3 segments merge to produce the head. There are 3 thoracic segments and 8 abdominal segments. At metamorphis, when the larval form becomes the adult, legs, wings and antennae develop.

Genetic control of the development

It is genetically mediated by homeobox genes. Some genes determine the embryo's polarity, this is which end is the head and which is the tail. Other genes, called segmentation genes, specify the polarity of each segment. Homeotic selector genes specify the identity of each segment and direct the development of individual body segments. These are the master genes in the control of networks or regulatory genes. There are two gene families: the complex that regulates development of thorax and abdomen segments the complex that regulates development of head and thorax segments. Mutations of these can change one body part to another. This condition is known as antennapedia.

Genetic control of development in other organisms

There are homeobox genes in the genomes of segmented animals from worms to vertebrates, including humans. The homeobox genes each contain a sequence of 180 bases pairs, this sequence produces polypeptides of about 60 amino acids. Some of these are transcription factors and they bind to genes upstream and initiate trascription, so regulating the expression of other genes. The homeobox genes are arranged in clusters known as teh hox clusters round worms have one hox cluster Drosophilia have two hox clusters Vertebrates have four clusters The homeobox genes are expressed in specific patterns in certain stages during the development of the embryo, in both verterates and invertebrates. They specify the identities and fate of embryonic cells and the development of the body plan.

Retinoic acid and birth defects

Retinoic acid is a derivative of vitamin A. It activates homeobox genes in vertebrates in the same order tat they are expressed in developing systems, such as the CNS, this runs head to tail. However, the amount of retinoic acid is crucial, too much taken in by a pregnant woman can interfere with the normal expression of these genes. This will cause birth defects including cranial deformaties.

Questions
Vitamin A is stored in the liver of all mammals. Suggest why pregnant women are advised not to eat liver? Because it contains large amounts of vitamin A. Retinoic acid is a derivative of vitamin A, too much of this especially in early stages of pregnancy can interfere with the normal expression of homeobox genes and cause birth defects. Explain what is meant by a morphogen? It is a substance that governs the pattern of tissue development by activating the homeobox genes. What are transcription factors? Some of the polypeptides expressed by homeobox genes, which bind to other genes further along the DNA from homeobox genes, and switch them on. They regulate the expression of other genes and so influence the development of the embryo.