TRANSMITTER

TRANSMITTER
REQUIREMENTS
A transmitter must generate a signal with the
following criteria:
The correct modulation type
Must have sufficient power
Must generate at the correct carrier frequency
Should be reasonably efficient

CONTINUOUS WAVE (CW)
TRANSMITTER
The oscillator is keyed off and on to produce
dots (short RF burst) and dashes (longer RF
burst).
The amplifier increases the power level of the
signal.
A powerful CW
transmitter
AM TRANSMITTER
An AM transmitter using high-level collector
modulation
AM TRANSMITTER
Crystals provide the desired frequency with
good stability.
Carrier signal is fed to a buffer amplifier to
isolate the oscillator from the remaining power
amplifier stages.
The signal then to a driver amplifier (class C) to
provide an intermediate level of power
amplification.
The final power amplifier is just referred to as
the final (operates class C at very high power).
AM TRANSMITTER
The input from the mic is applied to a low-level
class A audio amplifier.
The amplifier boost the small signal from the mic
to a higher voltage level.
Speech-processing circuit where the voice
signal is filtered to ensure that only voice
frequencies (300 3kHz) in a certain range are
passed and to hold the amplitude to particular
level.
minimize the BW occupied by the signal.
AM TRANSMITTER
The driver amplifier increases the power level of
the signal so that it is capable of driving the
high-power modulation amplifier (class AB or
class B push-pull).

FM TRANSMITTER
A typical FM amplifier using indirect FM with a phase
modulator
FM TRANSMITTER
A stable crystal oscillator is used to generate the
carrier signal.
A buffer amplifier is used to isolate the signal
from the remainder of the circuitry.
At a phase modulator, the voice input is
amplified and processed to limit the freq. range
and prevent overdeviation.
A frequency multiplier (class C amplifier) is used
to achieved the desired output freq. (factor:
2,3,4 or 5)
The frequency multipliers provide the correct
amount of multiplication for carrier freq. and the
modulation deviation.
FM TRANSMITTER
A class C driver amplifier is used to increase the
power level sufficiently to operate the final
power amplifier.
The final amplifier stages in FM broadcast
transmitter typically use large vacuum tube
class C amplifiers.
SSB TRANSMITTER
SSB TRANSMITTER
An oscillator signal generates the carrier
signals.
The buffer amplifier supplies the carrier input
signal to the balanced modulator.
The audio amplifier and speech processing
circuits provide the other input to the balanced
modulator.
The signal then fed to a filter which selects
either the upper or lower sideband.
The SSB signal is fed to a mixer to translate the
signal to a higher desired frequency.
SSB TRANSMITTER
The SSB signal is mixed with the input from
VFO to produce he desired operating frequency.
Bandpass filters may be used to filter out the
unwanted sideband in an AM transmitter
It is then fed to the linear driver and power
amplifier to increase the power level as
required.
CLASS C AMPLIFIER
A way of supplying bias:
1- Signal bias
2- External bias
3- Self-bias

CLASS C AMPLIFIER
SIGNAL BIAS
The signal to be amplified through
capacitor C
1
.
When the E-B junction conducts
on the +ve half cycle, C
1
will
charge to the peak of the applied
voltage less the forward drop
across the E-B junction.
On the ve half cycle of the input,
the E-B junction will be reverse
bias the transistor does not
conduct and C
1
will discharge
through R
1
.
The higher the average dc bias
voltage, the narrower the
conduction angle and the shorter
the duration of the collector
current pulses.

EXTERNAL BIAS
Negative bias can also be
supplied to a class C amplifier
from a fixed dc supply voltage.
After the desired conduction
angle is determined, the value of
the reverse voltage can be
determined. It is applied to the
base through the RFC.
The incoming signal is then
coupled to the base and causes
the transistor to conduct only on
the peaks of the positive input
alternation.
SELF-BIAS
The bias is derived from the signal.
When current flows in transistor, a
voltage is developed across R
1
.
C
1
is charged and holds the
voltage constant emitter more
positive than the base.
A strong input signal is required for
proper operation.
TUNED CIRCUIT IN CLASS C
AMP.
Connected in the collector.
Primary purpose: to form the complete ac sine
wave output.
A parallel tuned circuit will ring or oscillate at
its resonant frequency whenever it receives a
dc pulse.
There is an exchange energy between the
inductor and the capacitor (the flywheel effect).
The tuned circuit in the collector also to filter
out unwanted harmonics (higher- order
harmonics).
TUNED CIRCUIT IN CLASS C
AMP.
The Q of the tuned circuit is an important
consideration in a class C amplifier.
Relationship between the BW and Q in tuned
circuit is represented by:
BW=f
r
/Q
If Q is too high, the BW will be very narrow and
some of the higher frequency sidebands will
be eliminated frequency distortion.
CLASS E
It introduced the feature of soft-switching into the family of switching
PAs, a major improvement in comparison with the Class-D
configuration, that enabled even higher efficiencies to be achieved.
Under control of the input signal, the transistor is switched at a
frequency of operation, and with some predetermined duty cycle
value, usually (but not necessarily) D=50%. When the switch is
closed, it is said to be in the ON state; conversely, in the OFF state,
the switch is open.


CLASS E
The RFC, due to its huge reactance, enforces a DC current to flow
into the circuit from the power supply. Therefore, a combination of
the load RF sine wave current and the DC supply current flows
through the parallel switch-capacitor combination.
During the ON state, the switch is closed and allows an unimpeded
flow of the entire current. As the switch ideally has no resistance,
the voltage across it remains zero throughout the ON state. When
the switch opens at the beginning of the OFF state, the current is
being redirected to the shunt capacitor, thus charging/discharging it
and creating a voltage drop across the switch and capacitor.
The key aspect of the Class-E PA, and the major difference in
comparison with the Class-D mode, is the so called soft switching
operation. This feature refers to two specific conditions that are
simultaneously fulfilled in Class-E circuits:
zero turn-on switch voltage
zero slope of the switch voltage at the instant of turn-on

CLASS F
CLASS F
The concept of waveform shaping by addition of
harmonics represents the basis of the Class-F amplifier.
The basic idea is to increase the third- and fifth-
harmonic load impedances seen by the transistor, in
order to add the needed components to the drainsource
voltage to make it flatter. On the other hand, the device
current waveform corresponds to that of the Class-B
amplifier.
The Class-F topology typically employs a load network
significantly more complex than that encountered in
other PA classes. This arises from the fact that the load
network in Class-F amplifiers is designed to boost the
load impedance for the third and, usually, fifth harmonic,
instead of providing a short circuit for all harmonics,
which is the case in conventional (class A-C) amplifiers.
CLASS F
Class-F PA is usually categorized among
switched-mode amplifiers, the required harmonics
can actually be generated by operating the
transistor as a current source. However, due to
the fact that the drain-source voltage approaches
a square wave, the transistor is driven into
saturation during part of the RF cycle.
The parallel resonator L0C0 is the output
harmonic trap, tuned to the operating frequency.
A few odd harmonics (in addition to the dc bias),
whereas the drain current contains the
fundamental and an infinite number of even order
harmonic components.
IMPEDANCE-MATCHING
NETWORKS
The matching network that connect one
stage to another.
Either LC circuits, transformers or some
combination of two.
Functions:
1- to provide for an optimum transfer of
power through impedance-matching
techniques.
2- Provide filtering and selectivity
(eliminating a number of high-amplitude
harmonics).
Ideal case is when Zi=Zl where maximum power
transfer takes place when Zi equals Zl.
BUT
The goal is to transfer a sufficient amount of
power to next stage so that it can provide the
max. amount of output of which it is capable.
The appropriate resistive output impedance of a
bipolar transistor amplifier is determine by:
Ri = Ro
Ri= V
2
/ KP
where P is the desired output power and K is a
constant determined by the class of amplifier.
IMPEDANCE-MATCHING
NETWORKS
L-NETWORKS
i
L
C
l
i
L
i
l
R
X
Q
X
R
R
X
R
R
Q
=
=
> 1
i l
i
L
C
l
i
L
i
l
R R
R
X
X
R
R
X
R
R
Q

=
=
> 1
T NETWORKS
C
L
f X
C
f
X
L
t
t
2
1
2
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=

+
=
l
C
C
C
QR
X Q
Q R
X
R
Q R
R X
i
l
l
l
1
1
1 ) 1 (
1
) 1 (
2
2
2
1
Can be designed
either step up or
step down the
impedances.
The capacitor is
usually made
variable so that
the circuit can be
tuned to
resonance and
adjusted for max.
power output.
PI NETWORKS
Q
R
X
source
C
=
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

+
=
Q
X
R
Q R
X
Q
R
R
X
C
load
source
L
load
load
C
Can be designed
either step up or
step down the
impedances.
The capacitor is
usually made
variable so that
the circuit can be
tuned to
resonance and
adjusted for max.
power output.
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
Iron core are widely used at lower frequencies
to match one impedance to another.
Any load can be made to look like a desired
load impedance if the correct value of the
transformer turns ratio is selected.
The equation and example that shown later is
only true on iron core transformers.
Air-core transformers are less efficient for
impedance-matching.

Example: To match a 5O generator impedance
to a 50O load impedance, the turns ratio would
be




From the results, there are 3.16 times as many
turns on the secondary as on the primary.

TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
316 . 0
1 . 0
50
5
=
= = =
s
p
l
i
s
p
N
N
Z
Z
N
N
Toroid:
- is made of special typed of powdered iron.
Copper wire is wound on the toroid to create
the primary and secondary windings.
- Can make autotransformers. It is single-
winding tapped coils.


TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
Advantages using toroid:
1- Confines the entire magnetic field no
sheilds are necessary.
2- The basic turns ratio, input-output
voltage, and impedance formulas for
standard low- frequency transformer apply
to high- frequency toroid
transformers.
3- Toroid inductors is high permeability and
high inductance.

TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
BALUNS FOR IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
Is a transmission line transformer connected to
perform impedance matching over a wide
range of frequencies.
Baluns is derived from the words BALanced
and UNbalanced (grounded).
Many other balun configurations are possible
with different impedance ratios.
By cascading baluns, impedances may be
stepped up or stepped down by wider ratios.

BALUNS FOR IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
The transformer can provide the designated
impedance matching over a tremendous range
of frequencies broadband RF power
amplifiers.
Broadband amplifier can overcome the
switching problem but does not provide the
filtering necessary to get rid of harmonics.

BALUNS FOR IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
BALUNS FOR IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
SPEECH PROCESSING
Refers to the ways that the voice signal used
in communications is dealt with prior to being
applied to the modulator.
Benefits:
1- To ensure that overmodulation does not
occur and to restrict the bandwidth of the
signal.
2- Helps keep the average transmitted power
higher in AM and SSB transmission.
3- To prevent the modulation signal amplitude
from causing overdeviation.

ANALOG SPEECH
PROCESSING
A basic speech-processing circuit incorporating clipping and
filtering
The low-level signal from mic. is amplified by
two stages of audio amplification to raise the
signal to a high enough amplitude.
The signal then applied to a clipper to clip off
the voice peak that is greater than 0.7V (no
overmodulation and overdeviation).
The filters will restrict the BW of the signal and
reduce the distortion caused by clipping.
In AM and SSB, speech compression is
preferred.

ANALOG SPEECH
PROCESSING
DIGITAL SPEECH
PROCESSING
Can be performed using a digital signal
processing (DSP).
DSP executes special programs that
implement the speech processing methods on
digital data.
The analog voice signal is first digitized by an
ADC.
The ADC converts the voice into a stream of
binary numbers that is processed by the DSP
chip.
The output of DSP is sent to DAC.
REFERENCES
Frenzel, L.E. 2000. Communication
Electronics: Principles and Applications. 3
rd
ed.
McGraw Hill.
Wayne Tomasi, 2001. Electronic
Communication Systems: Fundamentals
Through Advanced. Prentice Hall.