Introduction to Forensic Science

Drug Identification

What is a drug?
A drug is a natural or synthetic substance
used to alter consciousness, affect the structure or function of the body, and may or may not be used in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease. We will focus on drugs that are abused, both legal and illegal substances that cause psychological and/or physical addiction.

Drug Abuse
Drug abuse - the excessive,
maladaptive, or addictive use of drugs for non-medical purposes despite social, psychological, and physical problems that may arise from such use.

Drug abuse is a problem at every

socioeconomic level of society.

Symptoms of Drug Addiction

Preoccupation with acquiring the drug of
choice Compulsion to continue using the drug even after suffering serious consequences as a result of drug use Relapse - many drug addicts quit using drugs for brief spells, only to return to using drugs even though they have faced serious consequences as a result of drug use

Physical and Psychological Dependence

Physical dependence - the body becomes
physiologically adapted to the presence of a drug in the system, when the drug is not taken, then withdrawal symptoms occur, including profuse sweating, agitation, diarrhea, insomnia Psychological dependence - an urge to repeatedly use drugs for their euphoric affects even though undesirable effects may occur

Designer Drugs
Designer drugs - drugs created by
chemists to be similar to controlled substances, but which are legal because the chemists alter their molecular structure so they are somewhat different than the illegal drugs they are modeled after.

How Drugs Enter the Bloodstream

Injection - when a drug
is injected into a vein, the user experiences the effects within sections Methamphetamine, heroin, and cocaine are often injected.

How Drugs Enter the Bloodstream

Inhalation - Many drugs may also be
inhaled, rather than injected. The drug is snorted and quickly enters the bloodstream via the mucous membranes. Drugs may be inhaled through smoking as well. The lungs quickly absorb the active ingredients of the drugs. Drugs that are inhaled or smoked include marijuana, cocaine, methamphetamine, ice, heroin, crack cocaine.

How Drugs Enter the Bloodstream

Ingestion by mouth Pills are generally
taken by mouth. The drug then enters the bloodstream via the gastrointestinal tract.

Important Terminology
Dopamine - a monoamine C8H11NO2 that is a
decarboxylated form of dopa and that occurs especially as a neurotransmitter in the brain.
Dopamine is necessary to sustain life. According to Alexander Bosch, Parkinson's
disease is said to be caused by a dopamine deficiency Tourette syndrome is said to be caused by an excess of dopamine receptor sites [
.[1] .[2] 1] http://tcw2.ppsw.rug.nl/~vdbosch/pd.html 1/20/04
[2] http://au.geocities.com/jones_kacm/chem.htm 1/20/0

Important Terminology
Neurotransmitter - a chemical messenger
between nerve cells in the mammalian brain

Narcolepsy - a disabling sleep disorder;

patients report having excessive daytime sleepiness, brief spells of paralysis while sleeping or awake, and dream-like images when first going to sleep Reagent - a substance used in detecting or measuring a component because of its chemical or biological activity

Types of Drugs
Stimulants - mood elevators that stimulate the
central nervous system Amphetamines
Effects - excitement, loss of fatigue, euphoria,
elevated blood pressure and heart rate, decreased appetite, and nervousness Extreme use may result in psychotic behavior, convulsions, and death Many amphetamines are prescribed for weight loss.

Stimulants
Ephedrine, amphetamine, and
methamphetamine are prescribed for narcolepsy

Ritalin - (Methylphenidate) used in

calming hyperactive children

Cocaine
Cocaine - a powerfully addictive stimulant,
which is an alkaloid extracted from the leaves of the coca plant
Legitimate medical uses, include use as a local
anesthetic for some eye, ear, and throat surgeries. Forms of cocaine Powdered - the hydrochloride salt, taken intravenously or intranasally; the intravenous use of cocaine is the most dangerous method and can result in death Freebase - cocaine in a form that may be smoked; it is a compound that hasn't been neutralized by an acid (also known as crack)

Depressants
Depressants - depress the central nervous
system and reduce pain Alcohol - most widely used mind altering substance in the world
Ethanol is a central nervous system depressant Effects are similar to a general anesthetic. In high
levels, judgment is affected, reduced motor coordination, slurred speech, dizziness, and reduced vision capability.

Depressants
Barbiturates - central nervous system
depressants Seconal, Tuinal, Nembutal Used to relieve anxiety and tension before surgery Also used as anticonvulsant for epilepsy.

Tranquilizers
Tranquilizers - mood elevators that cause
mild euphoria, drowsiness, relaxation and calmness Rohypnol - the date rape drug, similar to Valium, odorless, colorless
Effects - sedation, amnesia, muscle relaxation Especially dangerous when used in combination
with alcohol - can lead to respiratory depression, aspiration, and death This drug is a current favorite at college fraternity parties where unsuspecting females are drugged and sometimes raped after drinking spiked beverages.

Tranquilizers
Xanax - anti-anxiety drug prescribed for
anxiety attacks and depression May cause clumsiness or sleepiness Extremely habit-forming Do not use with alcohol, for it may lower your blood pressure and decrease your breathing rate to the point where you become unconscious.

Tranquilizers
Ativan - central nervous system depressant,
relieves anxiety and acts as a sedative; do not operate dangerous machinery or motor vehicles while under the influence of this drug

Valium -central nervous system depressant,

relaxes muscles, and has sedative and anticonvulsant properties

Depressants
Opiate derivatives
Heroin, morphine, codeine -also known as
narcotics

Inhalants - glue, paint thinner, hair

spray, nail polish remover These substances produce a vapor that is
inhaled causing euphoric feeling somewhat like alcohol.

Hallucinogens
LSD - lysergic acid diethylamide - this drug is
considered a semi synthetic psychedelic drug, which alters perception PCP - phencyclidine, a white crystalline powder with a distinctive bitter chemical taste, chemically produced for legitimate use as a veterinary anesthetic

PCP
PCP is often sprinkled on marijuana and then
smoked Other names for PCP - angel dust, ozone, whack, rocket fuel Effects of PCP - created in 1956 as a surgical anesthetic, but serious side effects were noted immediately, including psychotic and violent behavior Observable effects include slurred speech, loss of coordination, involuntary eye movements, and exaggerated gait

Mescaline
Mescaline - an organic hallucinogen that is
derived from the peyote cactus The Native American church is lawfully permitted to use this substance in their religious ceremonies. * (Twenty-three states exempt the Native American church from laws governing peyote use. The church is also exempt from certain provisions of the federal Controlled Substances Act.)

Psilocybe Mushrooms

Psilocybe mushrooms - similar to

mescaline and LSD, these mushrooms change the mood and perceptions of their users

Ecstasy (MDMA, STP)

Ecstasy - (methylenedioxymethamphetamine)
Schedule 1 drug having stimulating and hallucinogenic properties Taken orally (tablets, capsules) or snorted (powder) Effects - illusions and hallucinations, altered perception of time and distance Possible side effects - nerve cell damage, psychosis and death Large doses cause the user's body temperature to spike, which may lead to heart and/or kidney failure
[1] [1] Howard Abadinsky, "Drugs, An Introduction", p. 145

Marijuana
Marijuana - (Cannabis
sativa) exhibits some of the characteristics of each of the three groups: depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens

Marijuana
Active ingredient is THC
THC triggers the release of dopamine,
producing pleasure and a craving for more marijuana

Effects include euphoria, relaxed

inhibitions, increased appetite, impaired reaction time, and short-term memory loss

Medical Marijuana
Voters in several states have passed referendums
permitting the use of marijuana for medical purposes. However, the federal government opposes these measures and has threatened to arrest doctors who violate federal marijuana statutes. According to the American Bar Association, Virginia, New Hampshire, Maine, Connecticut, Louisiana, Alaska, Arizona, Oregon, Washington, and California all have passed laws permitting the medical use of marijuana.
[1] http://www.bnabooks.com/ababna/rnr/2000/rnredr.pdf 1/20/04

Marijuana & Hashish

Hashish - the resinous secretion from the
flowers of the Cannabis plant, with a THC content of 5 -12% Hash oil - a dark, oily extracted from the hashish with a THC content of 20 - 60 % According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, marijuana is the most commonly used illegal drug in the U.S. Marijuana is considered a gateway drug because its use is often the precursor of later more serious drug abuse.
[1]

[1] http://www.drugabuse.gov/Infofax/marijuana.html 1/21/04

Anabolic Steroids
Anabolic steroids - these are man-made
substances, often used by athletes to increase muscle mass, enhance performance, and to improve appearance.

Anabolic steroids are prescribed to treat

people suffering from delayed puberty, impotence, and loss of lean muscle mass due to AIDS and other diseases.

Anabolic Steroids
Side effects - serious health problems, some
irreversible Side effects experienced by men
Infertility Baldness Increased risk of prostate cancer

Side effects experienced by women

Facial hair Deepened voice Male-pattern baldness

Ingested orally or by injection

Caffeine
Caffeine is found in coffee, tea,
chocolate, and over-the counter cold remedies

Positive affects - increased alertness

and energy

Negative effects - anxiety and insomnia

Nicotine
Nicotine - the primary component in tobacco
that acts on the brain is a naturally occurring colorless liquid Nicotine is one of the most frequently used addictive drugs. Cigarette smoking is the primary method of imbibing nicotine Each cigarette smoked = 1 to 2 mg of nicotine enters the bloodstream of the smoker
[1], [1] http://www.drugabuse.gov/researchreports/nicotine/nicotine2.html#what 1/22/04

Nicotine
According to the 1999 National
Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 57 million Americans smoke. "Tobacco kills more than 430,000 U.S. citizens each year-more than alcohol, cocaine, heroin, homicide, suicide, car accidents, fire, and AIDS combined. Tobacco use is the leading preventable cause of death in the United States
."[1]

[1] http://www.drugabuse.gov/researchreports/nicotine/nicotine2.html#what 1/22/04

Controlled Substances Act

Schedule I - drugs or substances which
have no accepted medical use, are possessed legally only for research purposes, and have a high potential for abuse Marijuana Mescaline & Peyote LSD Ecstasy (MDMA)

Controlled Substances Act

Schedule II - drugs which have
accepted medical use, have high potential to be abused, and if abused, may cause severe psychological or physical dependence Amphetamine Morphine Methadone PCP - Phencyclidine

Controlled Substances Act

Schedule III - drugs that have medicinal
use and are less likely than Schedule I and II drugs to be abused. Phendimetrazine - Bontril (generic) weight
loss drug Anabolic steroids Marinol - synthetic THC

Controlled Substances Act

Schedule IV - drugs that have medicinal
use and less likely than Schedule I and II drugs to be abused Phenobarbital - sedative; also used to
control epilepsy Diazepam - Valium

Controlled Substance Act

Schedule V - drugs and drug
preparations that are often sold overthe-counter. These drugs have low potential for abuse and are currently accepted for medicinal use in the U.S.

Drug Identification
Before drug identification can take
place, the drugs must often be isolated from other components that may be present.

Drugs can then be identified using one

(or more) of the three categories of laboratory techniques listed below.

Isolation and Separation Techniques

Fractional distillation - A process by which
components in a mixture are separated according to their different boiling points. Evaporation - the process of heating a solution until all of the liquid has evaporated and only solids remain Recrystallization - the process of dissolving a solute in a solvent at or near its boiling point, The solution is later cooled after filtering out impurities. The solute then recrystallizes in a pure form that can easily be analyzed.

Isolation and Separation Techniques

Chromatography - a broad range of
physical methods used to separate and analyze complex mixtures Centrifugation - the use of a centrifuge to separate a heterogeneous mixture of solid and liquid by spinning it. Solvent extraction - this method is used most often by forensic toxicologists

Documentation of Evidence
As soon as drug evidence is brought
into the laboratory, it should be weighed, and then documented into the evidence record. The drug evidence should be described as to shape, size, amount, form (tablets, powder, capsule), color, and odor.

Chemical Tests
Color tests - involves the use of specific
reagents which when combined with a drug, result in a specific color
The reagent Mandelin is used to test for codeine,
cocaine, and heroin. The resultant colors are olive, orange, and brown (respectively).

Nitric acid concentrate reacts with codeine, heroin,

and LSD to produce a yellow/orange color.

Microchemical Crystal Tests

A drop of reagent is added to a small amount
of the unknown substance. The mixture is then placed on a slide and viewed under a microscope. The unknown substance reacts with the reagent and certain crystals are formed as a result. Advantages to using microchemical crystal tests:
The tests can be conducted quickly because
isolation and purification are unnecessary. Microchemical crystal tests have been developed for many commonly abused drugs.

Quantitative and Qualitative Tests

Several instruments and techniques are
used not only to substantiate the identity of drugs, but also to quantify the amount of drugs present. Thin-layer chromatography - generally
used for qualitative analysis of unknown drugs Gas chromatography - used for both qualitative and quantitative analysis High performance liquid chromatography

Qualitative and Quantitative Tests

Infrared spectrophotometry - through the
use of the IR spectrum of a pure substance, a chemist can determine both qualitative and quantitative measures of a substance

Mass spectrophotometry - must be used

with pure samples

Levels of Drug-Law Enforcement

Source control - actions taken to
disrupt, limit, prevent, and eliminate the production or cultivation of drugs

Interdiction - the interception of drugs as

they are being smuggled into an area

Domestic distribution - actions taken to

eliminate, severely curtail, and prevent drug trafficking within the U.S.

Levels of Drug-Law Enforcement

Wholesaling - actions taken to curtail
mid-level dealing at the state and local level

Street Level Dealing - local authorities

try to curtail and/or eliminate street dealers and addicts supporting their own habits