Unit-1

Introduction to mobile communication

1
Introduction to wireless comm


J.C BOSE put the concept of wireless
communication
In 1897 Guglietmo marconi demonstrated radios
ability to provide continuous contact with ships

Then new wireless communication methods &
services have been adopted by people throughout
the world



:



1960 & 1970s - bell laboratories developed the cellular
concept
The wireless era was born in 1970s with the
development of highly reliable ,miniature ,solid state
radio frequency hardware
Future growth of consumer based mobile
communication will tied closely to:
1. radio spectrum allocation
2. regulatory decision
3. support to new & extended services
4. advance technology signal processing
5. access & networking areas





V Evolution of mobile radio communication
mjvs
In 1934 , 194 municipal police radio system & 58
state police station had developed AM mobile
comm system
In 1935 edwin armstrong demonstrate FM

4
Examples of wireless communication systems
Garage door openers
Remote controller for home equipment
Cordless telephone
Walkie-talkie
Pager
Cellular phones

5
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 6
Mobile radio transmission system:
Simplex
Half duplex
Full duplex -provide separate channnel FDD & TDD
7
Frequency division duplex(FDD):
FDD provides simultaneous radio transmission
channels for the subscriber & BS so that they may
constantly txmit & Rx the signals
At the BS separate Txmit & Rx antenna r used to
accommodate the 2 separate channels
At the subscriber unit single antenna is used for
both Txmission & receptions
This device called duplex unit
Duplex unit is used inside the subscriber unit to
enable the same antenna for Txmission or Rx
2channels- fwd & reverse



8
Time division duplexing(TDD)
TDD is possible only in digital Txmission formats &
digital modulation is very sensitive to time
TDD is used recently for
indoor , small area wireless n/w, physical distance is
very small

9
Paging system
Paging Systems are wireless communication systems
that are designed to send brief messages to a subscriber.
It's a one-way messaging system in which Base Station
send messages to all subscribers.
The Paging System transmits the message also known as
Page, along with Paging System access number,
throughout the service area using Base Station, which
broadcast the page on a radio link.

10
Types of Paging Systems
The Paging Systems can be of two types.
Manual Paging System: In a manual paging system, a
message is sent to the paging operator through
telephone call by the caller. The message is then
delivers to the pager through paging network by the
operator.
Automatic Paging System: In an automatic paging
system, the incoming requests are automatically
processed by the paging terminal and then this
information is delivers to the pager. Automatic Paging
Systems are mostly used.


11
Wide area paging system
12
Paging system
13
Cordless telephone
A cordless telephone or portable telephone is a
telephone with a wireless handset that communicates
via radio waves with a base station connected to a fixed
telephone line, usually within a limited range of its
base station (which has the handset cradle).
The base station is on the subscriber premises, and
attaches to the telephone network the same way a
corded telephone does.

14
Cordless telephone
15
cordless telephone
16
Cordless telephone
17
Cellular telephone system
18
Cellular telephone system
Cellular telephone system provides a wireless
connection to PSTN for any user location within the
radio range
A cellular system offers
1.high quality of service
2.high capacity
3.same radio channel may be reused
4.handoff
Each BS have limited coverage area called cell
19
Communication between BS & MS is defined by
common air interfaces (CAI) that specifies 4 channel
FVC BS to MS
RVC MS to BS
FCC
RCC
FCC & RCC responsible for initiating mobile call

20
Timing diagram illustrating how a call to a mobile
user initiated by a landline subscriber is
established.

21


22
Timing diagram illustrating how a call initiated by
a mobile is established
23
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 24
Modern wireless communication systems
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 25
First Generations 1G
Analog modulation(FM)
FDMA/FDD
A cell-phone carrier typically gets 832 radio
frequencies to use in a city.
Therefore, each cell has about 56 voice channels
available, which allows 56 people to be talking on
their cell phone at one time.
395 voice channels per carrier/2 frequencies per call
(The other 42 frequencies are used for control
channels)

Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 26
First Generations 1G Shortcomings
Cell phones
Limited battery life (typically 8 hours)
Limited range could have more powerful cell phone
mounted in cars
Security
None easy to listen in
Very limited number of voice channels

Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 27
Second Generation 2G
Voice (data) channels are digital-1990
Control channels the same
Modulation scheme used-GMSK
GSM uses frequency duplex communication & each call
is allotted a duplex channel(TDMA/FDD)
Duplex channels are separated by a 45MHz
Every channel is of 200KHz BW so GSM uses FDM to
separate the channel
Downlink frequency (BS to MS)- 935 t0 960 MHz
Uplink frequency (MS to BS)- 890 t0 915 MHz



28
2G cellular networks
2G popular std includes 3TDMA std
1. Global system Mobile(GSM):
- supports 8 time slotted user for 200KHz
- deployed widely by Europe,Asia,Australia,South
America & some US
2. Intrim standard 136(IS-136) :
- also called north American digital cellular
- supports 03 time slotted users for 30KHz
- deployed by North America,Australia

Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 29
2G cellular networks
3. Specific Digital Cellular(PDC):
- A Japanese TDMA std.
- Similar to IS-136
4. 2G-CDMA
- also called as cdma-one
- supports 64 users that are orthogonally coded
- simultaneous txed on 1.25 MHz channel
- deployed by Korea,Japan,Chaina ,south America&
Australia
30
Specification of 2G services
31
Shortcomings of 2G
Single ckt sw voice channel
Less data txmission
Limited data throughput rate
2G n/w designed to support only single user data rate
(10kbps)
Too slow for email & internet
Generally used for SMS


Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 32
Various upgrade paths for 2G technologies
33
Evolution of 2.5G
Higher data rate
Web browsing
Email traffic
Mobile commerece
Location based mobile services
2.5G uses : upgrades
1 . High speed ckt sw data(HSCSD)
2. General packet Radio service(GPRS)
3. Enhanced data rates for GSM evolution(EDGE)

Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 34
Evolution of 2.5G
High-speed circuit-switched data (HSCSD), is an
enhancement to Circuit Switched Data (CSD)
One innovation in HSCSD is to allow different error
correction methods to be used for data transfer
Data rate archives 14.4 kbps
It can provides up to 57.6 Kbps


Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 35
. General packet Radio service(GPRS)
GPRS was designed to make mobile data faster, cheaper,
and user-friendlier than ever before.
By introducing Internet Protocol (IP) and packet
switching to mobile networks, it gives mobile users
faster data rate
For subscribers, GPRS enables voice and data calls
simultaneously.
Setting up a Connection is almost instantaneous, and
users can be always connected to the mobile Internet,
enjoying Web surfing, high-speed delivery of e-mails
with large file attachments, and access to corporate
LANs.

36
. General packet Radio service(GPRS)
Packet based nw use for
-Non-real time internet usage
- retrival of email,fax, & web browser
- user can download data
It is always on to access nw
Data rate -172.2kbps

Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 37
. General packet Radio service(GPRS)
GPRS supports
-Short message services( SMS)
- Wireless application protocol(WAP)
- multimedia messaging services(MMS)
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 38
Application of GPRS
Chat
Multimedia services
Virtual private nw
Personal information management
Vehicle positioning


Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 39
WHAT IS EDGE


EDGE (Enhance data rate for GSM evolution) is a radio
signaling technology for 3G mobile networks.

EDGE use for mobile service such as
- downloading of video and music clips
- full multimedia messaging
- high- speed colors internet access
- e-mail on the move

40
Enhance data rate for GSM evolution
Enhance data rate for GSM evolution (EDGE) is a
digital mobile phone technology.
It is generally classified as a 2.75G network technology.
EDGE has been introduced into GSM network since
2003 initially in north America
It can be used for any packet switching application
such as an internet connection.
EDGE circuit switching is a possible for future
development.
Introduces a new modulation technique (8PSK) and
channel coding.



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41
Enhance data rate for GSM evolution
Increase data rates up to 384 kbps
Introduces a new modulation technique (8PSK) and
channel coding.
In addition to Gaussian minimum- shift keying
(GMSK),EDGE uses higher-order PSK/8 phase shift
keying (8PSK).
EDGE produces a 3-bit word for every change in carrier
phase.



43
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 44
HOWDOES EDGE WORK ?

Edge work by improving the signaling interface used to
communicate over the radio wave.
Typically edge enhance three time the performance of
GPRS achieving an data rate 80 to 160 kbps per user
with mobile terminals
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 45
Impact of EDGE on existing GSM/GPRS networks :


Hardware upgrade to the BSS (new transceiver in each
cell)
Software upgrade to the BS and BSC
No change in the core networks
New terminals
-Terminal which provides 8PSK in the uplink and the
downlink
-Terminal which provides GMSK in the uplink and
8PSK in the downlink

46
Advantage of EDGE


Faster data transfer rates up to384 kbps
Higher data throughput
increase Capacity and performance
Easy implementation on a GSM/GPRS network
Cost effective
Increase the capacity and triples the data rate of GPRS
Enabling new multimedia services

Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 47
3G wireless networks
3G provides
- multimegabit bits internet access
- communication using VOIP
- voice activated call
- always on access
It Receives
- live music
- interactive web
- simultaneous voice & data access
- multiple parties on single handset irrespective on
location


48
3G W-CDMA-Universal mobile telecom services(UMTS)
3GPP body developing W-CDMA for
- wide area mobile cellular coverage(FDD)
- indoor cordless application(TDD)
W-CDMA provides always on packet based services
Supports packet data rate up to 2.048 mbps per user with
high quality data
multimedia
streaming audio video
videoconferencing
virtual home entertainment
It requires min BW of 5Mhz




49
3G CDMA 2000
It provides a seamless & evolutionary high data rate up
to 2Mbps
Total BW is 12Mhz & channel BW is 1.25Mhz
Previous cdma20001x provides data rate of up to
307kbps for user in packet mode
Total throughput rate of up to 144kbps per user
depending upon the no.of users & the velocity of user
cdma20001xEV ( evolutionary) originally developed by
to provides data rate greater than 2.4Mbps
- web browsing
- email access
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 50
Cellular concept
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 51
Cellular network
Regions divided into cells modeled as hexagons.
Each cell has a base station that all cell phones within the
cell communicate with.
Communication uses both data and control channel.

Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 52
IDEAL ACTUAL DIFFERENT CELL MODEL
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 53
CELL SHAPE
Cellular network
Why hexagon
1) it avoids dead spots & full area coverage is achieved
2) it requires fewer cell
3) it requires less transmitter sites
4) less expensive
Group of cells is called cluster

Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 54
55
Clusters
Cluster size
N = 7
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
In TDMA and FDMA
cells are grouped
into clusters.
The total number of
channels are equally
distributed among all
cells in a cluster.
The channel
allocation pattern is
repeated in every
cluster.

56
Clusters (2)
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
Cluster size
N = 4
57
Clusters (3)

We cannot select cluster size arbitrarily.
Cluster sizes must satisfy the following:
N = i
2
+ij+j
2
where i and j are non-negative integers.
Thus N = 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12

1.Frequency reuse
Users in different geographical areas (in different cells)
may simultaneously use the same frequency
Frequency reuse drastically increases user capacity and
spectrum efficiency

Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 58
4/22/2013 59
Process of selecting & allocating channel groups for all of the
cellular base stations within a system is called frequency
reuse or frequency planning.
To keep interference level within tolerable limits.



FREQUENCY REUSE
4/22/2013 60
FREQUENCY REUSE
The frequency spectrum is a
limited resource. Therefore,
wireless telephony, like radio,
must reuse frequency assignments.
For example, two radio stations
might transmit at 91.3 FM. There
is no interference as long as the
radio stations are far enough apart.

Problem: Limited frequency spectrum

Solution: Based on the idea of splitting up coverage region
into small areas referred to as cells
Frequency reuse
Each cellular BS station allocated a group of radio
channel to be used within small geographic area called
as cell
Adjacent BS are allocated different group of channel
Antenna at BS are designed to achieves desired coverage
in same cell
The same group of channel may be used to cover
different cell that are separated from one another by
distance large enough to keep interference level min
The process of selecting & allocating channel groups for
all cellular BS is called frequency re-use


61
Frequency reuse distance
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 62
Frequency reuse
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 63


Consider a cellular system which has a total of S duplex channels.
Each cell is allocated a group of k channels, .
The S channels are divided among N cells.
The total number of available radio channels
S=KN
The N cells which use the complete set of channels is called cluster.
The cluster can be repeated M times within the system. The total
number of channels, C, is used as a measure of capacity
C=MKN=MS
The capacity is directly proportional to the number of replication M.
The cluster size, N, is typically equal to 4, 7, or 12.
Small N is desirable to maximize capacity.
The frequency reuse factor is given by 1/N


64
Fixed channel assignment strategies:
Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice
channel

Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by
the unused channel in that particular cell

If all the channel in that cell are occupied, the call is
blocked & subscriber does not Rx call


Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 65
2.channel assignment
Why we need channel assignment ?
- to utilize the spectrum efficiently
- reuse the frequency
- increase the capacity
- minimize interference
There are Two types of channel assignment strategies
- fixed or dynamic
- borrowing strategies

Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 66
Borrowing strategies:
A cell is allowed to borrow channel from a neighboring
cell if all of its own channel are already occupied
MSC supervised the borrowing procedure
Borrowing does not disrupt or interfere with any of the
calls in progress in the donor cell
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 67
Dynamic channel assignment:
Voice channels are not allocated to different cell
permanently
Instead each time a call request is made the BS request
a channel from MSC
The switch then allocates a channel to be requested cell
following the algorithm


Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 68
3.Handoff
When a mobile moves into a different cell while a
conversation is in progress, the MSC automatically
transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the
new base station.

Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 69
70
BS
Mobile Device
Network
BS
Network
BS BS
Mobile Device
Network
BS BS
Mobile Device
Before During After
BS = Base-Station
Hard Handoff :
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 71
BS
Mobile Device
Network
BS
Network
BS BS
Mobile Device
Network
BS BS
Mobile Device
Before During After
BS = Base-Station
Soft Handoff :
1G handoff
Signal strength measured by BS & supervised by MSC
BS monitors strength of RVC & location
Spares receiver in each BS called locator receiver
Locator receiver determines signal strength of user in
other cell
Location Rxver reports RSSI to MSC
MSC will decide if handoff is necessary or not
Locator receiver controlled by MSC

Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 72
73
2G TDMA Handoffs
In second generation systems which use digital
TDMA technology, handoff decisions are assisted
by the MS (MAHO).

MS monitor control channels of other BSs.

MS reports all signal strengths to serving BS.

When received power from a neighboring BS is stronger
than the serving one (and this increase is of significant
duration), MS signals MSC (through BS) that a handoff
may be needed.


Handoff Strategies
When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in
progress, the MSC automatically transfers the call to a new channel
belonging to the new base station.
Handoff operation
identifying a new base station
re-allocating the voice and control channels with the new base
station.
Handoff Threshold
Minimum usable signal for acceptable voice quality (-90dBm to -
100dBm)
Handoff margin =Pr handoff Pr minimumusable
cannot be too large or too small.
If is too large, unnecessary handoffs burden the MSC
If is too small, there may be insufficient time to complete
handoff before a call is lost.

Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 74
Handoff Strategies
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 75
76
Practical Handoff Considerations
With frequency reuse, a cellular provider can
increase system capacity by decreasing cell sizes.
With more cells in the same area, and by using the
same frequency reuse pattern, the number of
effective channels over the same area is increased.
However, as the cells decrease in size, the number
of handoffs increase.
More channels must be reserved for handoffs.
As cells decrease in size, high speed users may require
many handoffs per call, which increases probability of
call being cut off.
77
Practical Handoff Considerations
Low speed users, such as pedestrians, may not
need a handoff, even in very small cells.
The rate of decrease in the received power (which
is usually a function of the velocity of the MS),
determines the priority of a handoff.
How can we support both high speed and low
speed users while maintaining a high system
capacity and low number of handoffs?
Umbrella cell approach.
78
Umbrella Cell Approach
Low speed users can be handled by microcells or
picocells.
High speed users are handled by a larger cell macrocell
which is co-located with smaller cells.
Speed of MS can be estimated by MSC by observing
the rate of change of signal strength.
4/22/2013 79
Macrocell
Microcell
Macro-cellular Micro-cellular
Large cells(5-20km radius)
Higher TX power
BS is expensive
Lesser back-haul cost
Low capacity
Supports mobility
Low bit rates
Smaller cells(200m to 2km)
Lower TX power
BS is much cheaper
Higher back-haul cost
High capacity possible
Pedestrian & fixed use
High bit rates

Practical Handoff Consideration
Different type of users
High speed users need frequent handoff during a call.
Low speed users may never need a handoff during a call.
Microcells to provide capacity, the MSC can become burdened if high
speed users are constantly being passed between very small cells.
Minimize handoff intervention
handle the simultaneous traffic of high speed and low speed users.
Large and small cells can be located at a single location (umbrella cell)
different antenna height
different power level
Cell dragging problem: pedestrian users provide a very strong signal to
the base station
The user may travel deep within a neighboring cell

80
Practical Handoff Consideration
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 81
4/22/2013 82
Omnidirectional
ANTENNAS
4/22/2013 83
ANTENNAS

coaxial
portable
broadband

4/22/2013 84
CELLULAR

Interference and System Capacity
Sources of interference
another mobile in the same cell
a call in progress in the neighboring cell
other base stations operating in the same frequency band
noncellular system leaks energy into the cellular frequency band
Two major cellular interference
co-channel interference
adjacent channel interference
Co-channel Interference and System
Capacity
Frequency reuse - there are several cells that use the same set of
frequencies these cell called co-channel cells
Interference between signal from these cell called co-channel interference
To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cell must be separated
by a minimum distance.
When the size of the each cell is approximately the same & the BS txmit
the same power then CCI ratio is independent on
Transmitted power
Radius of cell R
distance betn center of the nearest co-channel cell D
Increasing the ratio Q=D/R, the interference is reduced.
Q is called the co-channel reuse ratio
Frequency reuse distance
Dept of E& TC, SCOE,Pune 41 87
For a hexagonal geometry



A small value of Q provides large capacity
A large value of Q improves the transmission quality - smaller
level of co-channel interference
A tradeoff must be made between these two objectives

N
R
D
Q 3 = =
Let io be the number of co-channel interfering cells. The signal-to-
interference ratio (SIR) for a mobile receiver can be expressed as



S: the desired signal power
: interference power caused by the ith interfering co-channel cell base
station
The average received power at a distance d from the transmitting
antenna is approximated by


or


n is the path loss exponent which ranges between 2 and 4.

=
=
0
1
i
i
i
I
S
I
S
i
I
n
r
d
d
P P

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
0
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
0
log 10 ) dBm ( ) dBm (
d
d
n P P
r
close-in reference point
When the transmission power of each base station is equal, SIR
for a mobile can be approximated as



Consider only the first layer of interfering cells
( )

=
0
1
i
i
n
i
n
D
R
I
S
( )
0 0
3 ) / (
i
N
i
R D
I
S
n
n
= =
Example: AMPS requires that SIR be
greater than 18dB
N should be at least 6.49 for n=4.
Minimum cluster size is 7
6
0
= i
For hexagonal geometry with 7-cell cluster, with the mobile unit
being at the cell boundary, the signal-to-interference ratio for the
worst case can be approximated as
4 4 4 4 4
4
) ( ) 2 / ( ) 2 / ( ) ( 2

+ + + + + +
=
D R D R D R D R D
R
I
S
Adjacent Channel Interference
Adjacent channel interference: interference from adjacent in
frequency to the desired signal.
Imperfect receiver filters allow nearby frequencies to leak into the
passband
Performance degrade seriously due to near-far effect.
desired signal
receiving filter
response
desired signal
interference
interference
signal on adjacent channel
signal on adjacent channel
FILTER

Adjacent channel interference can be minimized through careful
filtering and channel assignment.
Keep the frequency separation between each channel in a given
cell as large as possible
A channel separation greater than six is needed to bring the
adjacent channel interference to an acceptable level.
Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems
Methods for improving capacity in cellular systems
Cell Splitting: subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells.
Sectoring: directional antennas to control the interference and
frequency reuse.
Coverage zone : Distributing the coverage of a cell and extends the
cell boundary to hard-to-reach place.
Cell Splitting
Split congested cell into smaller cells.
Preserve frequency reuse plan.
Reduce transmission power.

microcell
Reduce R to R/2
Illustration of cell splitting within a 3 km by 3 km square
Transmission power reduction from to
Examining the receiving power at the new and old cell boundary



If we take n = 4 and set the received power equal to each other


The transmit power must be reduced by 12 dB in order to fill in
the original coverage area.
Problem: if only part of the cells are splited
Different cell sizes will exist simultaneously
Handoff issues - high speed and low speed traffic can be
simultaneously accommodated

1 t
P
2 t
P
n
t r
R P P

1
] boundary cell old at [
n
t r
R P P

) 2 / ( ] boundary cell new at [
2
16
1
2
t
t
P
P =
Sectoring
Decrease the co-channel interference and keep the cell radius R
unchanged
Replacing single omni-directional antenna by several directional
antennas
Radiating within a specified sector

Interference Reduction

position of the
mobile
interference
cells
Microcell Zone Concept
Antennas are placed at the outer edges of the cell
Any channel may be assigned to any zone by the base station
Mobile is served by the zone with the strongest signal.

Handoff within a cell
No channel re-
assignment
Switch the channel to
a different zone site
Reduce interference
Low power
transmitters are
employed