Mechanical Behavior of

Materials
Tensile Testing
Introduction
We select materials for many components and applications
by matching the properties of the material to the service
condition required of the component.
measure how a material withstands an applied force
Tensile Test, Impact Test,
Fatigue Test, Creep Test
Hardness Test

The result of this test are the mechanical properties of the
material.
Impact Test
In order to select a material to withstand a sudden intense
load, we must measure a materials resistance to failure in an
impact test.
Fatigue Test
Stress may occur as a result of rotation, bending, or even
vibration.
Even through the stress is below the yield strength, the metal
may fail after a large number of applications of the stress.
This mode of failure is known as fatigue.
Creep Test
If we apply a stress to a material at a high temperature, the
material may stretch and eventually fail, even though the
applied stress is less than the yield strength at that
temperature.
Hardness Test
The hardness test measures the resistance to penetration of
the surface of a material by a hard object.
Tensile Test
The most common way to assess the mechanical behavior of
a material (strength and ductility)
The tensile test measure the resistance of material to a static
or slowly applied force.

In a tension test, we collect force
(or load) vs. displacement (or time).

We use the resulting information
to assess strength and
deformability

Tensile Test Specimen
Force - Extension Curve
Interesting observation: As deforming volume is
changed, the force required to deform changes.

FORCE
CONSIDER AN ELASTIC FIBER
the force required to deform it to failure is F.






CONSIDER TWO IDENTICAL FIBERS
CONNECTED TOGETHER
the force required to deform them to failure is 2F

The amount of force needed to deform a solid depends
on the volume or surface area of the body.
Example (Tensile Test)
The test shown has a diameter of 12.5mm and a gage length
of 50mm. The specimen is placed in the testing machine and
force F is applied.
Load
(KN)
Gage
Length
(mm)
0 50
4.5 50.02
13.4 50.07
22.3 50.13
31.2 50.18
33.4 50.75
35.2 52
35.7 53
35.7 54
33.8 55.13
Aluminum Alloy
Load - gage length
Aluminum alloy test speciment (Dim=12.5 mm)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
50 50.02 50.07 50.13 50.18 50.75 52 53 54 55.13
Gage lenght (mm)
F
o
r
c
e

(
k
N
)
Engineering Stress
If we convert the force to stress and the distance between
gage marks to strain.
Engineering Stress: o = F / A
o

Units for stress and conversion factors

Load per unit area (force distribution)

PSI: 1 lb/in2 = 6.895 x 10-3 MPa = 7.032 x 10-4 kg/mm2
= 6.8 x 104 dynes/cm2

MPa: 1 MPa = 1 MN/m2 = 1 N/mm2 = 1 x 106 N/m2

Engineering Strain
Engineering Strain: c = ( l l
o
) / l
o


A
o
is the original cross-sectional area of the specimen
before the test begins.
l
o
is the original distance between the gage marks.
l is the distance between the gage marks after F is applied.

STRAIN IS UNITLESS!
It is a measure of the amount of distortion caused by the
application of a force.

We express strain either as a fraction or as a percentage. Be
careful when doing homework or solving real engineering
problems. (ex. e = 0.02 is the same as 2% strain)
Engineering Stress and Strain
Load
(KN)
Gage
Length
(mm)
Engineering
Stress (MPa)
Engineering
Strain
0 50 0.00 0
4.5 50.02 36.65 0.0004
13.4 50.07 109.14 0.0014
22.3 50.13 181.64 0.0026
31.2 50.18 254.13 0.0036
33.4 50.75 272.05 0.015
35.2 52 286.71 0.04
35.7 53 290.78 0.06
35.7 54 290.78 0.08
33.8 55.13 275.30 0.1026
Engineering Stress and Strain
Stress - Strain
Aluminum alloy test speciment (Dim=12.5 mm)
0.00
50.00
100.00
150.00
200.00
250.00
300.00
350.00
0 0.0004 0.0014 0.0026 0.0036 0.015 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1026
Strain
S
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
Elastic versus Plastic Deformation
Engineering Stress-Strain Curve
Key features
Key features : you should already be able to identify them
on the diagram.

Proportional limit
Ultimate tensile strength
Offset yield stress
Total strain to failure
Uniform plastic strain
Modulus of elasticity


Yield Strength
The yield strength is the stress at which slip becomes
noticeable and significant.
Yield point = point at which plastic deformation begins, i.e.
end of linear region of plot.


(Engineering) Ultimate tensile strength =

Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity, or Youngs modulus, is the slope
of the stress-strain curve in the elastic region.
This relationship is Hookes law
Ductility
Ductility is the ability of a material to deform plastically
without fracture.
Percent of Elongation:
%EL = ( l
f
l
o
)/l
o
x 100
Percent Reduction in Area:
%RA = (A
o
A
f
)/A
o
x 100


Modulus of Resilience
The ability of a material to absorb energy when deformed
elastically and to return it when unloaded.

U
R
= (o
Y
)
2
/ 2 E

Modulus of Toughness
The ability of a material to absorb energy in the plastic
range.

U
T
= o
u
c
f
Theory
True Stress and True Strain
When materials are subjected to loads, they will deform or
break.
When a material deforms, its volume is generally conserved.
Thus shape changes with deformation.





Gives rise to new definitions of stress and strain that take
into account these changes.
True Stress and True Strain
The decrease in engineering stress beyond tensile point
occurs because of our definition of engineering stress.
We used the original area A
o
in our calculation, which is not
precise because the area continually changes.
We define true stress and true strain by the following
equations:
True stress: o
t
= F / A
True strain: c
t
= } dl/l
o

True Stress and True Strain
Material which initially is equal to l
o
x A will remain same
at any particular point in the tensile test, V = l x A
Hence,



|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
=
A
A
l
l
l
l
A
A
lA A l
o
o
T
o
o
o o
ln ln c
Relationship between
( )
( ) c c
c
c
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
+ =
=

=
1 ln ln
1
1
o
T
o
o o
o
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l l
Relationship between
( )
( )
( ) c o o
o o
c c
c
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
= = =
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
+ = =
1
1 ln ln ln
1
E T
o
E
o
o
T
o
o
T
o
o
A
A
A
A
A
F
A
F
A
A
l
l
l
l
A
A
True Stress and True Strain
Calculation
Worksheets
Load
(N)
Length
(mm)
Elongation
l - lo
Eng.
Stress
P/Ao
Eng.
Strain
dl / lo
T.
Stress
P / A
T.
Strain
ln(l/lo)




Calculation
Analysis of Results
Points of Discussion