The Nervous system

The nerve cell is the basic unit of communication in the vertebrate nervous system

Three Classes of neurons

The Neural circuit consists of
Sensory neurons
receptor for stimulus

Interneuron
integrate signals

Motor neuron
transfer signal to effector (muscle)

Anatomy of a Neuron
Cell body: functional portion Dendrites: short extensions that receive signals Axon: long extension that transmits impulses

How does a neuron hold and move info?

A neuron at rest has a voltage difference across the plasma membrane called a resting voltage potential An action potential is when this charge across the membrane is briefly switched The action potential moves down the membrane at a rapid pace. Ap can move faster over mylenated portions is called saltatory conduction

 A synaptic cleft divides 2 neurons The AP will not move across the synaptic cleft Neuro transmitters are released by the signal cell to the receiver cell Move by diffusion

How does a signal move from one neuron to another?

Types of chemical synapse

Acetylcholine: neuromuscular junctions, glands, brain and spinal cord Norepinepherine: affects brain regions concerned with emotions, dreaming

Paths of information flow

Signals between the brain and spinal cord move to the body regions by nerves Sensory nerves move a signal towards the brain and spinal cord
Motor neurons move a signal from the brain or spinal cord to the body

Divisions of the nervous System

Central nervous system CNS
Is the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system PNS

all nerves that carry signals to and from the CNS

Parts of the PNS

Sensory Division carries info to the brain and spinal cord.
Motor Division carries info from the brain to the bodies effectors (things that do the work)

The Motor division of the PNS has 2 divisions

Somatic nerves relay commands to and from skeletal muscle
Voluntary control

Autonomic nerves send signals to and from smooth muscles

Involuntary control

Sympathetic Parasympathetic

The autonomic divisions

Parasympathetic
slow down the body activity when the body is not under stress Rest and digest
Sympathetic
increase overall body activity during times of stress, excitement or danger fight or flight response hormone epinephrine

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

Are Antagonistic Work towards the automatic, subconscious maintenance of homeostasis.

Components of the CNS

Spinal cord
31 pair of spinal nerves Grey matter White matter Controls some reflex actions like bladder emptying

Brain parts
Hindbrain
medulla oblongata cerebellum pons

Midbrain Forebrain
cerebrum thalamus hypothalamus

Other parts of the CNS

The two cerebral hemispheres communicate through the corpus collosum
left verbal skills right nonverbal skills such as music math, abstract

Brain cavities and Canals

cerebrospinal fluid surrounds and fills in cavities in the brain Blood Brain barrier- controls what moves into the brain. Will prevent infections.

Our state of consciousness

The CNS governs sleeping, dozing, daydreaming and full alertness neurons of the reticular activating system control the changing levels of consciousness by releasing serotonin.

Limbic system
Involved in both memory and emotion. Is involved with behavior. Odors pass through this system and may influence or behavior and emotions.

Memory
Association is the linkage of information to structural and chemical changes short term- few bits lasts a couple of hours Long term- permanent and limitless

The most important info goes rapidly into long term storage memory is stored in a form resistant to degradation Possibly caused by changes in synapses.

Tips on studying
Concentrate on what you study. Minimize interference. Study takes time. Break material into smaller portions. Rephrase materials in your own words. Test yourself to see what you know.

Disorders of the nervous system

Trauma Infections Transmission and synaptic defects. Abnormal growth

Sensory Reception
If a tree falls in the woods with no one to listen does it make a sound?

Receptors
Are the actual structures that respond to our environment. Each receptor will respond to a different signal. Essentially translators, they translate an energy into one that can be perceived by the brain.

Sensory systems consist of

Each system has 3 parts
1) sensory receptors. 2) pathway to the brain. 3) region of the brain that recognizes this section.

Types of sensory Receptors

Chemoreceptors olfaction and taste Mechanoreceptors touch, stretch, hearing, equilibrium Thermoreceptors radiant energy, infared pain receptors Nociceptors Photoreceptors light

Sensory Pathways
If a receptor is stimulated enough it results in an action potential. The action potential reaches the brain. The stronger the stimulus the greater number of action potentials reach the brain. Sensory adaptation is when the action potentials are reduced by a constant stimulus. Certain receptors will not adapt.

Somatic sensations
Touch & Pressure Mechanoreceptors that respond to
changes or constant pressure

Temperature

Pain
Muscle sense

Increase in temperature causes and increase in AP Respond to intense stimulus on other receptors, cannot be ignored Mechanoreceptors give

measurement as to the location of all

the muscles and bones in a given moment.

Limb position, length and tension

How do we know where we are at?

Referred pain

Taste and Smell

Gustation: Taste Receptors located on tongue, roof of mouth, throat and palate Four tastes
sweet sour bitter salty

Olfaction: smell detect chemicals olfactory bulbs in brain interpret smell smell is often combined with emotion

Taste
Taste Bud 25 cells Taste hairs project into mouth Hairs contain receptors Categories
Sweet Sour Salty bitter

Hearing
Acoustical receptors detect vibrations The ear In the organ of corti loudness is determined by The total number of cells that are stimulated Pitch depends on frequency of vibration

Balance
Vestibular apparatus Overstimulation of the hair cells of the Closed system of vestibular apparatus fluid filled sacs results in motion Contain otoliths that sickness detect changes in orientation as well as acceleration

Vestibular apparatus

The Eye

Structure of the eye

Outer sclera (white) (is all the way around) Cornea (clear) Pupil (opening to the back) Lens (transparent) Retina (back side has photoreceptors and support material) Fovea has highest concentration of photoreceptors.

Regulating light amount

The iris adjusts to amount of light entering the eye. The lens goes through accommodation to adjust lens curvature (as we age the lens cannot buldge enough to focus on a close object)

Light must reach the sensors by going through neurons.

Outermost layer is pigmented to absorb light not absorbed by the sensors Photoreceptors are in middle layer Translucent neurons and ganglions are on top of the photoreceptors.

Production of Action Potentials by Rods and Cones

Within these cells flattened disks contain photopigment When this protein absorbs light it changes conformation, if enough are activated they cause an action potential. Rods contain rhodopsin and are most sensitive to dim light Cones contain different pigments

Rods and Cones

Bright light tends to use more cones, 300x more sensitive Dim light uses Rods and Rhodopsin, it is broken apart by light and must be remade (hence the 5-10 minute wait to see in darker areas)

Signaling to visual perception

Photoreceptors are in the retina When rods or cones are stimulated they send a signal to the brains visual cortex. In the brain the final interpretation makes sense of sight

Problems with the Eyes

Retinal detachment: retina separates form choroid Cataracts: lens becomes opaque Color blindness: Inability to distinguish colors, is a genetic disease, lacks specific types of cones

The Endocrine system

The oldest method of control is using a signal molecule that moves from one part of the body to the other

The Endocrine System Regulates

Salt and water balance Blood pressure Stress responses Digestion Cellular metabolism Production of RBCs Growth and development

Location of Endocrine Glands

Hormones and other signal molecules

Hormones: molecules secreted by glands into the blood that move to a nonadjacent target Neurotransmitters: act on a directly adjacent cell Local signaling molecule: act quickly and degrade quickly Pheromones: secreted by glands and target cells in other organisms

Signaling Mechanisms
Requirements
Cells that secrete the signal molecule are either within a gland or nervous tissue The signal molecule
Steroid hormone (fat soluble will move through the plasma membrane) Non steroid hormone (peptides and other molecules must bind to a receptor on the cell)

Target cell

Target cell activities

Different hormones activate different cellular response mechanisms No all cells have receptors for all hormones:

Does not fit bind, Good rx occurs reaction A cell with aNo single receptor on it

Three possible hormones

Characteristics of the Endocrine system

Each hormone acts only on certain cells Cells respond only when they have receptors Is slower than nervous system control Endocrine and nervous system to interact with one another.

Interaction of Endocrine System and Nervous System

Negative Control using Hormones

The pancrease an endocrine and an exocrine gland

Glucagon: raises blood sugars, release of stores and AA metabolism Insulin: lowers blood sugars opposes glucagon Somatostatin: inhibits secretion of the above enzymes

Bracketing using hormones

Regulation of Blood Calcium concentration

Increase Calcium
Parathyroid Hormone: removes calcium and phosphate from bone, increase absorption, retention of calcium in kidneys

Decrease of Calcium
Calcitonin

Oxytocin and nursing, a cascade of events

At the end of pregnancy, Estrogen rise. Uterus produces more oxytocin receptors Fetus produces oxytocin, starts a cycle of material production of oxytocin Oxytocin is a part of the neuroendocrine reflexes and will help in the smooth muscle contractions which cause the release of milk.