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o o
o o
= = =
= =
V = = =
nsity in the interior of the
superconductor cannot change on cooling at or below the
transition tempr
Re
at
si
ure.
stiv
But this
ity and
contradicts the
perfect Diamagne
mei
tism
ssners effec
tw
t.
o ar p e inde
of the
endent
super proper conduc s ties tor
Meissner effect shows that magnetic flux is ejected
outward of the specimen
4 ( )
superconductors 0
1
0 4 ( )
4
behave as d
0 de t
iamagne
specim n
.
e
ts
m
B insi he
B H I M
for B
I
H I M
H
SC
t
t _
t
= +
=
= + =
=
=
Circulating currents on the surface of
the superconductor induce microscopic
magnetic dipoles that oppose the
applied field.
The induced field repels the applied
field, and the magnet associated with it.
If a magnet is on top of a
superconductor as it is cooled below its
T
c
, it would exclude the magnetic field of
the magnet.
The Result
Applications of Meissner Effect
Standard test proof for a superconductor
Repulsion of external magnets - levitation
Magnet
Superconductor
Yamanashi MLX01 MagLev train
Temprature dependance of critical
field/Effect of external magnetic field
on superconductors
Superconductivity will dissapear if
temp of specimen is raised above
Tc or if a sufficiently strong
magnetic field is applied
Critical magnetic field (H
C
)
Minimum magnetic field required
to destroy the superconducting
property at any temperature
H
0
Critical field at 0K
T - Temperature below T
C
T
C
- Transition Temperature
Superconducting
Normal
T (K) T
C
H
0
Element H
C
at 0K
(mT)
Nb 198
Pb 80.3
Sn 30.9
2
0
1
C
C
T
H H
T
(
| |
( =
|
(
\ .
H
C
A superconducting Sn has a critical temprature
of 3.7K in zero magnetic field and a critical
field of 0.0306T at 0K. find the critical field
at 2K.
0
2
2
0
2
T =3.7K , H =
H =H
=
0.0306T (at 0K)
2
(1 ) 0.0306(1 )
3.7
0.02166Tesla
c
c
c
T
T
=
5
5
The critical field of niobium is 1x10 A/m
at 8K and 2x10 A/m at 0K. calculate the
critical temprature of the material
2 2
0
2 2
0
1/ 2
1/ 2
0
0
H
H =H =
H
H
H
H
H
=
(1 ) 1
(1 ) or
(1 )
11.31K
c
c
c c
c
c
c
c
T T
T T
T T
T
T
= =
The Science.
The understanding of superconductivity was advanced in
1957 by three American physicists-John Bardeen, Leon
Cooper, and John Schrieffer, through their Theories of
Superconductivity, know as the BCS Theory.
Pictures of Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer, respectively.
The BCS theory explains superconductivity at temperatures
close to absolute zero.
Cooper realized that atomic lattice vibrations were directly
responsible for unifying the entire current.
They forced the electrons to pair up into teams that could
pass all of the obstacles which caused resistance in the
conductor.
In many superconductors, the attractive interaction
between electrons (necessary for pairing) is brought
about indirectly by the interaction between the electrons
and the vibrating crystal lattice (the phonons).
Roughly speaking the picture is the
following:
An electron moving through a conductor will attract nearby
positive charges in the lattice.
This deformation of the lattice causes another electron, with
opposite spin, to move into the region of higher positive
charge density.
The two electrons then become correlated. There are a lot of
such electron pairs in a superconductor, so that they overlap
very strongly, forming a highly collective condensate.
The electron pairing is favorable because it has the effect
of putting the material into a lower energy state.
When electrons are linked together in pairs, they move
through the superconductor in an orderly fashion.
Best conductors best free-electrons no e
lattice interaction
not superconducting
The Science.
The BCS theory successfully shows that electrons can be
attracted to one another through interactions with the
crystalline lattice. This occurs despite the fact that electrons
have the same charge.
When the atoms of the lattice oscillate as positive and
negative regions, the electron pair is alternatively pulled
together and pushed apart without a collision.
The Science.
One can imagine a metal as a lattice of positive ions, which can
move as if attached by stiff springs. Single electrons moving
through the lattice constitute an electric current.
Normally, the electrons repel each other and are scattered by the
lattice, creating resistance.
A second electron passing by is attracted toward this positive
region and in a superconductor it follows the first electron and
they travel bond together through the lattice.
Electrons in the lattice form Cooper pairs which allow for current
to flow without resistance.
The electron-phonon interaction leads to a new ground state of
electron pairs (Cooper pairs) which shows all the desired
properties.
Classification of superconductors
The SC may be classified into two categories, depending
On their magnetization behavior ie the way in which the
transition from the normal state to SC state proceeds
in external magnetic field.
1. TYPE I (soft SC)
2. TYPE II (hard SC)
TYPE I (soft SC)
The SC in which the the magnetic field is totally excluded
From the interior of the SC ie it exhibits complete meissner
effect.
Above a certain magnetic field Hc the SC loses
Superconductivity and magnetic field penetrates fully.
The transition from
normal
to SC state
in the presence of
magnetic
field occurs sharply at Hc
TYPE II (hard SC)
Have two critical fields a lower Hc
1
and Hc
2
an upper.
State of specimen between Hc
1
and Hc
2
is termed as the
intermediate state magnetically but electrically it is a SC.
Alloys and transition metals with high value of resistivity
in normal state
They exhibit incomplete meissner effect.
Superconductor Classifications
Type I
tend to be pure elements or simple
alloys
= 0 at T < T
crit
Internal B = 0 (Meissner Effect)
At B
ext
> B
crit
, no superconductivity
Well explained by BCS theory
Type II
tend to be ceramic compounds
Can carry higher current densities ~ 10
10
A/m
2
Mechanically harder compounds
Higher H
c
critical fields
Above H
ext
> H
c
, some superconductivity
High Temperature Superconductors
CHARACTERISTICS
High T
C
1-2-3 Compounds: they are neither metals nor inter-
metallic compounds , they are oxides. their unit cell
contains 1 atom of rare earth(yttrium), 2 barium atoms ,3
cu atoms and 7 oxygen atoms.
Perovskite crystal structure:form as layers of Cu and O2
atoms sandwitched between layers containing other
lements in the compounds.
Direction dependent(anisotropic)
Reactive, brittle
Applications of high Tc SCs
Large distance power transmission ( = 0)
Switching device (easy destruction of
superconductivity)
Sensitive electrical equipment (small V
variation large constant current)
Memory / Storage element (persistent
current)
Highly efficient small sized electrical generator
and transformer
PENETRATION DEPTH
It is defined as the effective depth to which a magnetic
field penetrates the superconductor.
Depends strongly on temperature and becomes much
Larger as T approaches Tc.
1
4
2
0
0
( ) [1 ( ) ]
and are penetration depths at
TK and 0K respectively.
T
c
T
T
T
=
The penetration depth of Hg at 3.5K is about
750A and n
(superconducting electron density) as T 0
. Estimate the values of
o
s
1
4
2
0
1
4 0
2
0
1
0
2
0 0
2
0
28 3
( ) [1 ( ) ]
[1 ( ) ] 528.7 also
[ ] electron,
e charge, of super electrons
1.0x10
T
c
T
c
T
s
s
s
T
T
T
A
T
m
m mass of
n e
n number
n m
=
= =
=
=
Applications of Superconductors
magnetic shielding devices
medical imaging systems, e.g. MRIs
superconducting quantum interference
devices (SQUIDS) used to detect extremely small changes in magnetic
fields, electric currents, and voltages.
infrared sensors
analog signal processing devices
microwave devices
SQUIDS
Source: Superconductors.org
Flux-Pinning:
The phenomenon where a magnet's lines of
force (called flux) become trapped or
"pinned" inside a superconducting material.
This pinning binds the superconductor to the
magnet at a fixed distance.
Picture of Flux-Pinning:
Source: Superconductors.org
Emerging Applications
power transmission
superconducting magnets in generators
energy storage devices
particle accelerators
levitated vehicle transportation
rotating machinery
magnetic separators
What Types of Superconducting Power
Systems Equipment Can Help Us?
Underground transmission cables
Fault current limiters
Transformers
Motors
SMES, Generators, etc.
Cable transmits 3 to 5 times more energy
than copper wire
Source: Southwire
Transformer- 2 times overload capacity without
insulation damage and environmentally friendly due to lack
of oil used in operation.
Source: Waukesha Electric Systems
HTS Motor requires half the space of copper based
motors
Source: Rockwell
SMES
(Superconducting Magnetic Energy
Storage)
Source: American Superconductor
THE END