Fundamentals of Formation Evaluation

Fundamentals Of Formation
Evaluation
Elhadi Abusin
Schlumberger
Sudan
Outlines

Introduction
Reservoir Properties
Logging Measurement and Applications
Tools and Applications
OH Logging and Quick Look Analysis

Introduction
Permeable rock
stores the
hydrocarbon

Source rock
produces
hydrocarbon

Impermeable rock
traps
hydrocarbon

Trap
captures fluids
Introduction
Measurement
Open Hole Logging
Lithology (reservoir rock?)
Resistivity (HC,water,both?)
Porosity (how much HC?)
What type of HC
Formation mech. properties
Permeability / cap pressure
Shape of the structure
Geological information
Geothermal
Unconventional applications
Why we log
Introduction
The life of a well
Regional Studies Gravity / Other Geophysical Studies. Identification of main sedimentary basins.
Regional Seismic Large 2D surveys over sedimentary basins. Identification of main subsurface
structures that can allow HC presence.
Local 3D Seismic Detailed seismic survey over a smaller area to provide a more detailed
description on a prominent structure. In this stage a well is located to be drilled.
Well Drilling After previous studies a well is located. During drilling: mud logging/cores and Logging
While Drilling allows for geological and preliminary petrophysical info.
Well Logging Detailed subsurface petrophysical/geophysical measurements are obtained in order to
better characterize the formation on interest and determine its hydrocarbon potential. At this stage,
intervals are selected to be put on production.
Well Completion The well is completed. Casing and Cement are applied. Preliminary Cased Hole
Logging can be run. Perforation is performed in the selected intervals. Production string is set and the
well is put on production.
Well Production During this phase, monitoring the well production is performed using cased hole
techniques and data obtained from other wells in the field.
Introduction
During the drilling operations, the fluid is continuously circulated down the inside of
the drill pipe, through the bottom of the bit, and back.

Mud Logging
Introduction
Mud Logging
The rock fragments are collected at regular intervals to
provide information on the lithology, texture and presence
of hydrocarbons.
Size of Cuttings
1x3mm
Introduction
Mud Logging
Weight on Bit (WOB), Drill string rotation speed (RPM), Mud pump speed (SPM), Mud
pump pressure (SPP), Drilling Rate or Rate of Penetration (ROP), Lithology and texture
of cutting, Percentage of gas in air and/or gas composition, Hydrocarbon staining on the
cuttings and information such as bit diameter (D) and Drill-string configuration.
Hydrocarbon-in-Place =Area * Net Pay Thickness * Porosity * Hydrocarbon Saturation
where
Area - Area of hydrocarbon accumulation
Net Pay - Thickness of net hydrocarbon producing reservoir
Porosity - Void space in rock, occupied by fluids
Saturation - Proportion of pore space occupied by hydrocarbon
Three of these four key formation properties are derived from well data

For Volumetrics
Thickness Terminology
Net Pay <= Net Reservoir <= Gross Reservoir
Claystone
Porous & Permeable Sst
Claystone
Claystone
Claystone
W
a
t
e
r
Tight Cemented Sst / Lst
OWC
Net Pay
Net Pay
Net Pay
Net Pay
Net Reservoir
Net Reservoir
Net Reservoir
Net Reservoir
Non-Reservoir
Non-Reservoir
G
r
o
s
s

R
e
s
e
r
v
o
i
r
Aquifer
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Non-Reservoir
Proportion of total rock volume that is void space (fluid filled) Units
% or v/v
Total Porosity T
Effective Porosity E
Matrix/Primary Porosity
Secondary Porosity

Porosity
Porosity

u = Pore Space / Total Rock Volume

u

1 - u

}
}
Rock
Matrix

Porosity indicates how much fluid a rock can hold.

Most of all oil and gas produced today comes from the
accumulations in the pore spaces of reservoir rocks.
Primary porosity refers to the porosity characteristics that have existed in a
rock formation since it was first deposited.

Secondary porosity refers to porosity characteristics as they have been
changed.
Porosity
Primary Porosity Secondary Porosity
Rock
Matrix
Pores formed
during original
deposition
Rock
Matrix
Pores formed
after original
deposition
Porosity Types
Porosity
Proportion of void space that is occupied by a specific fluid - Units
% or v/v
Total Fluid Saturation SwT
Effective Fluid Saturation SwE
Moveable Fluid Saturation Shmov
Residual Fluid Saturation Shr
Irreducible Fluid Saturation Swirr

Saturation
Saturation
S
H
= Hydrocarbon saturation (oil + gas)
S
W
= Water Saturation
S
H
+ S
W
= 1

The saturation of the formation is the fraction of its pore volume
occupied by a specified fluid. Water saturation is the fraction of
the pore volume that contains formation water. If only water
exists in the pores, the formation has a water saturation of
100%.
u

1 - u
S
H

S
W

}
}
Rock
Matrix
Capacity to permit fluid flow Units D or mD
Darcy (D) (1 D = 1000 mD)
1 Darcy is that permeability that will permit a fluid of 1 cp
viscosity to flow at a rate of 1 cc per second through a cross-
sectional area of 1 sq cm when the pressure gradient is 1
atmosphere per cm.
Permeability
Permeability
Permeability is a measure of how easy a fluid flows through the
connecting pore spaces. The unit of measurement is the millidarcy (mD).
Rock Matrix Pore Space
Fluid
Path
Intermediate fluid flow path
Tortous fluid flow path
Fluid
Path
Easy fluid flow path
Fluid
Path
Fluid Flow in various
formations with same
porosity but different grain
size, structure and packing
Logging Measurement and
Applications
A full range of measurements are acquired, either via Wireline or LWD,
then interpreted to reveal the rock and fluid properties of the formation
such as:
Applications of
Open Hole Logging
Lithology
Porosity
Permeability
Hydrocarbon Identification
Hydrocarbon Quantification
Reservoir Evaluation

Applications
Applications of
Open Hole Logging
Applications
Measurement
Open Hole Logging
Open hole logging provides the most important source of information for well evaluation. It can be performed:
1) After the well has been drilled by lowering a set of sensors on an electrical cable (Wireline Logging);
2) While the well is being drilled by placing the sensors in the drill string (Logging While Drilling).
Wireline Logging Logging While Drilling
Applications
Measurement
Open Hole Logging
How do we get a log
A tool string
containing 4
tools
Applications
Measurement
Open Hole Logging
How do we get a log
Tool string is moving at a
certain logging speed, and
data are recorded at certain
intervals called sampling rate.
Applications
Measurement
Open Hole Logging
How do we get a log
Applications
Measurement
Open Hole Logging
How do we get a log
And we get a group of
wiggly lines called a log
Lithology
Some naturally occurring elements(Potassium, Thorium & Uranium) in the earths
crust undergo radioactive decay spontaneously. Alpha and beta particles and
gamma rays are emitted as their atomic nuclei disintegrate.

The Gamma Ray is the only one that can penetrate the rock for an appreciable
distance. A Gamma Ray (GR) log measures this radiation.
Radioactive Decay
Gamma ray Logging
Rock Formation
Rock Formation
In sedimentary formations, the
Gamma Ray (GR) log reflects the
clay or shale content.

Clean formations usually have a
very low level of radioactivity and
consequently a low GR log
reading.
Lithology
Typical Gamma-Ray Responses
Clean
Sand
Shaly
Sand
V
sh
= (GR GR
min
) / (GR
max
GR
min
)

The spontaneous potential is a
measurement against depth of the
borehole the difference between the
voltage in the wellbore and an
electrode on the surface.

Differences in potential are developed
due to the differences in salinity
between the mud filtrate and the
formation water.
Lithology
Borehole
Electrode
Isolated
Cable
Ground on
surface
Spontaneous Potential Measurement
The SP log cannot be recorded when a well is drilled with oil based mud, or when Rmf = Rw, or in a
cased hole.
In the shale zones, the SP curve
usually defines a more or less
straight line on the log.

In sands and more permeable
formations, the curves show
excursions from the straight line.
Lithology
Shale A
Sandstone B
Rmf > Rw
Shale C
Sandstone D
Rmf < Rw

SP LOG
- 42
+ 44
For a quick evaluation at the well-site,
the SP log is used in a similar way as
the GR log.

Baselines for 100% sandstone and
100% shale are established at the
maximum and minimum SP excursions.
Lithology
SP Log Example
V
sh
= (SP SP
cl
) / (SP
sh
SP
cl
)

The Litho-Density tool (LDT) consists of a chemical gamma ray (-ray) emitting source and
-ray detectors. The -rays emitted from the source interact with the formation in various
ways and are scattered back to detectors.

One of the ways in which the -rays interact with the formation is known as photo-electric
absorption. A parameter called PEF is defined by measuring the number of g-rays that are
absorbed by photo-electric absorption.
Lithology
Density Logging
Photoelectric Absorption
The PEF is a good matrix indicator.

PEF responds mainly to the lithology and has
very little effect due to changes in u or fluid
content.
Lithology
Lithology Identification using PEF
PEF as a function of fluid content
and lithology
Porosity
Sonic
A simple sonic tool consists of:
1) A transmitter which emits a
sound pulse.

2) And a receiver which picks up
and records the pulse as its
passes the receiver.

For eliminate the influences of
tool tilting and borehole size,
modern sonic tools has several
receivers.
Wellbore
Formation
Receiver
Compressional Shear Stoneley
The Sonic log records the time required for a sound wave to travel 1 ft
of the formation. Commonly referred to as interval transit time (At) or
slowness, it is the reciprocal of the velocity of the sound wave and is
measured in micro-seconds per foot (s/ft).
Porosity
Sonic
Two Transmitters/
Four Receivers
Porosity
Sonic
Willie Time Average Equation
Uncompacted Sands Raymer-Hunt Equation
In sedimentary formations sound velocity primarily depends on the rock matrix and the
distributed porosity.

For clean consolidated formations with uniformly distributed small pores, a relationship
between porosity and transit time was proposed by Willie.
Density
The majority of the -ray interactions are due to Compton scattering. As a result of this
interaction, -rays lose energy as they interact with electrons in the formation.

The more electrons in the formation, the more likely -rays are to undergo Compton
scattering. By measuring the -rays and their energy levels at detectors, the electron
density of the formation (proportional to bulk density) can be predicted.
Porosity
Density Logging
Compton Scattering
Density log response is a combination of the matrix density and the density
of fluids in their relative proportions.

The porosity can be computed from the density log for a known matrix and
saturating fluid densities.
Density
Porosity
The density log consists of three curves. RHOB - Formation bulk density, DRHO -
Bulk density correction depends on caliper. CALI - Caliper - the density tool is a
pad type tool. PEF Photo - electric factor is also a part of the density tool
recording.
Density
Porosity
Neutron
Porosity
Thermal Neutron Absorption
Neutron Logging
Thermal Neutron Absorption
The neutron tool consists of a chemical or an electronic high energy neutron emitter and neutron
detectors.

The high energy neutrons slow down to thermal levels via elastic scattering, mainly due to the
collision with the hydrogen atoms in the formation. Assuming that the majority of the hydrogen
atoms are present in the water or hydrocarbons in the pore spaces, the formation porosity can be
determined.
The Hydrogen atoms in the pore fluid of the formation act as tiny bar
magnets. The Nuclear Magnetic Resonance measurement is
obtained by manipulating the hydrogen nuclei with magnetic field.
NMR
Porosity
NMR Principles
H Protons as magnets
Random
Alignments

Inherent Spin
NMR
Porosity
Each H-atom has a
nuclear (proton)spin
No magnetic Field Present:

Nuclear Spins not aligned

Static Magnetic Field Present B0:

Spins aligned by static magnet

Apply RF pulse B1 (B1 I B0)

Spins swept to new direction

Spins decay to old static field

direction, giving off RF signal

NMR
Porosity
Measured decay of signal with time
Calculate from the decay curve

T2 relaxation time distribution
T2 distribution
Normalized signal
Amplitude

T2
signal
time
Number of pores
Pore size
The initial signal amplitude of the exponentially decaying curve is proportional to the
hydrogen index of the pore fluids. In water saturated rocks this signal amplitude can
be calibrated to give a porosity, without specifying mineralogy or matrix properties.
NMR
Porosity
u from NMR
Water in test tube
T
2
= 3700 msec
Water in pore space of rock
T
2
= 10 to 500 msec
CMR porosity
CMR porosity = 100%
Time (T
2
)
Signal
amplitude
Saturation
Resistivity
Invasion affects all logs.
Lithology and porosity do not
change significantly in the
invaded zone.

However, saturation has to be
computed for the uninvaded
zone, since invasion changes
fluid saturation in the invaded
zone.

The main tools for determining
hydrocarbon saturation in open
hole are the Resistivity tools.
I
n
v
a
d
e
d

Z
o
n
e

Measure: Electrical resistivity / conductivity of formation
Units: Resistivity - ohm-m, Conductivity mmho
Most log measurements presented as resistivity
Resistivity = 1000/Conductivity
Electrical currents primarily conducted through water. Rock matrix and
hydrocarbons are non-conductive.
For a current to flow the conducting medium (water) must provide a
continuous network through the formation
Water conductivity is dependent on salinity and temperature
Formation conductivity is dependent on the water conductivity, the porosity
(volume of water) and the pore geometry
Hydrocarbon in the reservoir reduces the volume of conducting water and so
reduces the conductive capability of the formation

Saturation
Resistivity
The formation lithology and u do not alter much due to invasion.

The R
t
changes significantly in the invaded zone and the resistivity
tools need to measure deep into the virgin zone to compute the S
w
.
Resistivity
Basics
Hydrocarbon
Saturation
Invasion
Invaded Transition Annulus Virgin

Rmf
100%

Borehole
Wall

0%
Resistivity
Basics
Hydrocarbon
Saturation
Depth of Investigation
of Resistivity Logs
R
t
determination Deep Log Medium Log
Very
Shallow
Log

Invaded
Zone
Virgin Zone

R
xo
= f (Very Shallow Log) S
xo
= 1/u (R
mf
/R
xo
)
1/2

R
t
= f (Very Shallow Log,Medium Log,Deep Log) S
w
= 1/u (R
w
/R
t
)
1/2

The resistivity tools are designed to read at various depths of investigation:
The shallow reading is used to measure the S
xo
.

The deep reading is affected by the invasion and is often not the R
t
.

The medium reading, together with the shallow reading, is used to correct the
deep reading to obtain the the R
t
.
Invasion by mud filtrate displaces reservoir fluids
away from the borehole
Resistivity tools designed to read at different depths
of investigation with deepest reading virgin
formation properties
Resistivity tools also designed for different mud
systems:
Laterologs for conductive muds (saline WBM)
Induction logs for non-conductive muds
(Oil/Fresh Water based)
Saturation
Resistivity
The objective of the shallow resistivity tools is to determine the invaded
zone resistivity. The tools consist of an arrangement of electrodes on a
pad that is pressed against the formation and minimizes borehole effect.
Resistivity
Micro
Hydrocarbon
Saturation
R
xo
Measurement
Laterolog tools function in conductive
drilling mud environments.

They send focused current into the
formation to measure the voltage in a
specific volume of the formation.

This voltage is related to the resistivity
of the formation.
Saturation
Resistivity
Dual Lateralog Measurement
Deep Measurements Shallow measurement
Volume of
Investigation
Saturation
Resistivity
In non-conductive mud environments,
lateralog tools do not work and induction-
principles based tools are used.

The principles of an induction tool:
1) The transmitter coil creates a primary
magnetic field;
2) The primary magnetic field induces
current loop in the formation;
3) The current loop creates an secondary
magnetic field;
4) The secondary magnetic field induces
a current in the receiver coil. The current
tensity is related to the formation
conductivity (or resistivity).
Typical dual laterolog (HALS) and
micro-spherically focused log (MSFL)
log. The R
t
can be computed from the
three curves using correction charts.
Saturation
Resistivity
In oil based mud, only induction based
resistivity logs can be recorded. The R
t
can be computed from the deep curve.
Saturation
Resistivity
Formation resistivity a function of
Formation Water Salinity & Temp.
Porosity
Pore Geometry
Hydrocarbon Saturation
Higher resistivity when:
Fresh water
Low Porosity
Low permeability
High hydrocarbon saturations
Lower Resistivity when:
Highly saline water
High porosity
High permeability
Low or zero hydrocarbon saturations

POTA
% 0 0.1
0POTA
THOR
PPM 0 20
URAN
PPM 0 20
0 THOR
0 URAN
GR
GAPI 0 150
CALI
IN 6 16
BS
IN 6 16
0 GR
DEPTH
FT
RHOB
G/CC 1.95 2.95
DRHO
G/CC -0.75 0.25
NPHI
v/v 0.45 -0.15
PEF
B/E 0 20
DT
US/F 140 40
LLD
OHMM 0.2 2000
LLS
OHMM 0.2 2000
MSFL
OHMM 0.2 2000
5850
5900
5950
6000
6050
6100
6150
6200
6250
6300
6350
6400
6450
6500
Saturation
Resistivity
Saturation
The saturation of a formation represents the amount of a given fluid present in the
pore space.

The porosity logs react to the pore space.
The resistivity logs react to the fluids in the pore space.
The combination of the two measurements gives the saturation
Matrix
water
oil
Basics 1
Rw = resistivity of water in the pore space.
Define Ro = resistivity of a rock totally filled with water.
F: Fn Factor.

At constant porosity F is constant.
As porosity increases, Ro decreases and F decreases.
Experiments have shown that F is inversely proportional to m.
m: is called the "cementation exponent".
a: is called the "lithology" constant.
F =
R
0
R
w
F =
a
|
m
Basics 2
Saturation can be expressed as a ratio of the resistivities:
where n is the "saturation exponent", an empirical constant.
Substituting for Ro:
Substituting for F:
S
w
n
=
R
0
R
t
S
w
n
=
FR
w
R
t
w
n
S
=
a
|
m
R
w
R
t
Saturation Equation
The Archie equation is hence very simple. It links porosity and resistivity with the amount of
water present, Sw.

Increasing porosity, will reduce the saturation for the same Rt.

Increasing Rt for the same porosity will have the same effect.
w
n
S
=
a
|
m
R
w
R
t
Type
Density-Neutron
Gas in formation causes the
apparent porosity from density log
to increase and porosity from
neutron log to decrease, causing
a density-neutron separation.
The tester can obtain vertical pressure profiles which are used to define fluid type within
the reservoir and locate fluid contacts in medium to high permeability virgin reservoirs.
Formation
Testing
Type
Micro
Resistivity
Separation between the two
curves from microlog resistivity
can indicate permeability.

The log does not provide the
absolute permeability value
and is only used as an
indicator for permeable
formations.
Permeability
Permeability from Microlog
Rock
Reservoir
Non-Reservoir
Hydrocarbon
Bearing
Water
Bearing
Gas Bearing - Evaluate
Oil Bearing - Evaluate
1) Locate reservoir
2) Detect Hydrocarbon
3) Hydrocarbon Type
4) Evaluate u, S
w

Basic Steps for
QuickLook Evaluation

Before start interpretation:

Review the quality of the logs : check headers, depths, scales,
calibrations. Read the remarks section.

Inspect the mud log for intervals with reservoir rock, hydrocarbon
shows and mud gains.

Use logs from surrounding wells, if available, to identify any obvious
anomalies in the data. Have a look on the local geology.

GAS
OIL
WATER
sandstone grades
to clay sediment
sandstone
pinch out
lithological
Local geology
Descriptor Measurement Functional Behavior
Clean/Shaly SP
GR
Vshale| SP |
Vshale| GR |
Porosity(|) Density
Neutron
Sonic
|| b +
|| |n |
|| At |
Hydrocarbon Rt Sw| Rt +
So| Rt |
| + Rt |
Recoverable/
Moveable
Rxo vs. Rt
(shallow vs.
deep)
Rxo=Rt no invasion
Rxo/Rt=Rmf/Rw
Moved fluid
This is a summary of Qualitative Interpretation
Reservoir
Rocks
To discriminate potential reservoir rock from non-
permeable rock GR or SP log can be used.

Reservoir Rocks

V
sh
= (GR GR
min
) / (GR
max
GR
min
)
or
Shale Index

GR (API)

GR Interpretation

Shale

Shale

Shale

Sand

Sand

Shaly Sand ???

Reservoir
Rocks
Other Shale Volume Computation
From SI (or Shale Index)
SP log can be used in a
similar way to identify the
reservoir rock and compute
the shale volume.
Reservoir
Rocks
V
sh
= (SP SP
cl
) / (SP
sh
SP
cl
)

SP Log Interpretation

R
mf
> R
w
Reservoir
Rocks
The sand and shale line are
selected on the GR log as
indicated by the respective
lines and the cut-off line
drawn.

The zones where the GR is
below the cut-off line can be
considered to be reservoir
quality.
Reservoir
Rocks
Hydrocarbon
Zones
From the Archies equation R
t
increases when the water is replaced
by oil with u and lithology remaining constant. This feature is
used to differentiate oil and water zones in the reservoir intervals.
Identify Hydrocarbon Zones

Oil
Zone

Water
Zone

Archies Equation

R
t
= R
w
/ (u
m
S
w
n
)

C
l
e
a
n

s
a
n
d
s

w
i
t
h

c
o
n
s
t
a
n
t

u

Resistivity Log

Water bearing intervals are
characterized by low resistivity
and density and resistivity with
same behavior.

When water is replaced by oil in
formation with the same porosity,
density decreases while resistivity
increases.
Hydrocarbon
Zones
Gamma-Ray Density Resistivity

Anti-
Correlation
W
A
T
E
R

O
I
L

Correlation

Once the reservoir intervals have been identified, next step is to
identify the hydrocarbon bearing zones. Zones with high resistivity
are the candidates to confirm the presence of hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbon
Zones
Oil/Gas
Differentiation
Gas in formation causes the apparent
porosity from Density log to increase
and porosity from Neutron log to
decrease, causing a high density-
neutron separation (cross-over).
Porosity,
Formation porosity can be obtained from:
Density Log alone : matrix density and fluid density has to be known
Density-Neutron Log : Compute the density and neutron porosity assuming the
same matrix and use the relevant equation.
The computed u will be a good approximation whatever the matrix.
Here matrix is sandstone, then
density log alone is used to
compute the formation porosity.
Porosity,
To compute the R
W
from the log, the interpreter must find a clean water bearing
zone from the log and read the resistivity in this zone from a deep resistivity
tool. Using the Archies equation for S
W
=1, the R
W
can be computed as above.
R
w
QuickLook Archie:

R
t
= R
w
/ (u
m
S
w
n
)

a=1, m=n=2

Saturation in the hydrocarbon bearing clean zones can be found using the
generalized Archies equation when the values of the a, m and n are known.
If they are not known, for a quicklook evaluation, use a = 1 & m = n = 2.
Water Saturation
(S
w
)
Using the Archies equation the S
W
can be computed in the hydrocarbon
zone using the values of R
W
and u determined earlier.
Water Saturation
(S
w
)
Summary
Water Saturation
(S
w
)
Thank You
Other computations that can be done:
For each major reservoir and fluid type:
Total net sand count (Net / Gross)
Average porosity
Average hydrocarbon saturation
Fluid Contact Levels
Petrophysical parameters used (
ma
, R
w
, m, n...)
Practical

1
2
3
4
5
Questions 1-5: Which answer best describes the zones 1-5 below. (A,B,C or D)
Question 6: Which zone below likely contains Oil or Gas
A- Permeable, low
resistivity and porous.
B- Permeable, high
resistivity and porous.
D- Permeable, high
resistivity and tight.
C-Impermeable
shale.
Answers
B- Permeable, high resistivity and porous.
A- Permeable, low resistivity and porous.
D-High resistivity and tight.
A- Permeable, low resistivity and porous.
1
2
3
4
5
C-Impermeable shale
6 Zone 1 is probably Oil productive

Fundamentals of Formation Evaluation

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