Diode Introduction

A diode is formed by
interfacing an n-type
semiconductor with a p-type
semiconductor.
A pn junction is the
interface between n and p
regions.
Diode symbol
Carrier Diffusion
Carriers diffuse from high
concentration to low
concentration.
Drift Currents
Diffusion currents lead to localized charge density () variations near
the pn junction.
Gauss law predicts an electric field due to the charge distribution:



Assuming constant permittivity (
S
),



Resulting electric field gives rise to a drift current. With no external
circuit connections, drift and diffusion currents cancel. There is no
actual current, since this would imply power dissipation, rather the
electric field cancels the diffusion current tendency.

V E =

c
c
s

E(x) =
1
c
s
(x)dx
}
(Change in electric field is proportional to net charge per unit volume.)
Space Charge Region Formation
at the pn Junction
Potential across the Junction
Charge Density
Electric Field
(define E=0 in neutral region)
Potential
(define =0 at
junction)

|
j
= E(x)dx
}
= V
T
ln
N
A
N
D
n
i
2
|
\

|
.
| , V
T
=
kT
q
Width of Depletion Region

w
d 0
= (x
n
+ x
p
) =
2c
s
q
1
N
A
+
1
N
D
|
\

|
.
|
|
j
Combining the previous expressions, we can form an expression
for the width of the space-charge region, or depletion region. It
is called the depletion region since the excess holes and electrons
are depleted from the dopant atoms on either side of the junction.
The 0 subscript indicates that no voltage is applied to diode terminals.
Width of Depletion Region (Example)
Problem: Find built-in potential and depletion-region width for given diode
Given data:On p-type side: N
A
=10
17
/cm
3
on n-type side: N
D
=10
20
/cm
3
Assumptions: Room-temperature operation with V
T
=0.025 V
Analysis:
m 113 . 0
1 1
2
0
|
c
= + =
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
j
D
N
A
N
q
s
d
w
( )( )
( )
V 979 . 0
/cm 10
/cm 10 /cm 10
V)ln (0.025 ln
6 20
3 20 3 17
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
i
D A
T j
n
N N
V |
Diode Electric Field (Example)
Problem: Find electric field and size of individual depletion layers on
either side of pn junction for given diode
Given data:On p-type side: N
A
=10
17
/cm
3
on n-type side: N
D
=10
20
/cm
3
from earlier example,


Assumptions: Room-temperature operation
Analysis:
V 979 . 0 =
j
|
m 113 . 0
0
=
d
w
m
4 -
10 13 . 1
1
0
1 1
0
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+ = + = + =
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
N
D
N
d
w
n
x
D
N
A
N
p
x
A
N
D
N
n
x
p
x
n
x
d
w
kV/cm 173
m 113 . 0
) V 979 . 0 ( 2
0
j
2
= = =

|
d
w
MAX
E
m 113 . 0
1
0

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
D
N
A
N
d
w
p
x
Internal Diode Currents

j
n
T
= q
n
nE+ qD
n
cn
cx
= 0
j
p
T
= q
p
pE qD
p
cp
cx
= 0
From Chapter 2: in a diode with no external connections, the total currents
are equal to zero.
When external bias voltage is applied to the diode, the above equations are
no longer equated to zero.
Diode Junction Potential for Different
Applied Voltages
Diode i-v Characteristics
Turn-on voltage marks point of significant current flow. I
s
is called the
reverse saturation current.




where I
S
= reverse saturation current (A)
v
D
= voltage applied to diode (V)
q = electronic charge (1.60 x 10
-19
C)
k = Boltzmanns constant (1.38 x 10
-23
J/K)
T = absolute temperature (K)
n = nonideality factor (dimensionless)
V
T
= kT/q = thermal voltage (V) (25 mV at room temp.)
I
S
is typically between 10
-18
and 10
-9
A, and is strongly temperature dependent due
to its dependence on n
i
2
. The nonideality factor is typically close to 1, but
approaches 2 for devices with high current densities. It is assumed to be 1 in this
class unless otherwise stated. Do not confuse nonideality factor n with free
electron density n!
Diode Equation

i
D
= I
S
exp
qv
D
nkT
|
\

|
.
|
1



(

(
= I
S
exp
v
D
nV
T
|
\

|
.
|
1



(

(
Diode Voltage and Current Calculations
(Example)
Problem: Find diode voltage for diode with given specifications
Given data: I
S
=0.1 fA I
D
= 300 A

Assumptions: Room-temperature dc operation with V
T
=0.025 V
Analysis:
With I
S
=0.1 fA

Other values (note relative insensitivity of voltage to current):
With I
S
=10 fA
With I
D
= 1 mA, I
S
=0.1 fA
V 718 . 0 )
A
16 -
10
A
4 -
10 3
V)ln(1 0025 . 0 ( 1 1 ln =

+ = + =
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
S
I
D
I
T
nV
D
V
V 603 . 0 =
D
V
V 748 . 0 =
D
V
Diode Current for Reverse, Zero, and
Forward Bias
Reverse bias:


Zero bias:


Forward bias:

i
D
= I
S
exp
v
D
nV
T
|
\

|
.
|
1



(

( ~ I
S
01
| |
~ I
S

i
D
= I
S
exp
v
D
nV
T
|
\

|
.
|
1



(

( ~ I
S
11
| |
~ 0

i
D
= I
S
exp
v
D
nV
T
|
\

|
.
|
1



(

( ~ I
S
exp
v
D
nV
T
|
\

|
.
|
Semi-log Plot of Diode Current and
Current for Three Different Values of I
S


I
S
[A] =10I
S
[B] =100I
S
[C]
Diode Temperature Coefficient
Diode voltage under forward bias:


Taking the derivative with respect to temperature yields


Assuming i
D
>> I
S
, I
S
n
i
2
, and V
GO
is the silicon bandgap energy at 0K.
For a typical silicon diode

v
D
= V
T
ln
i
D
I
S
+1
|
\

|
.
|
=
kT
q
ln
i
D
I
S
+1
|
\

|
.
|
~
kT
q
ln
i
D
I
S
|
\

|
.
|

dv
D
dT
=
k
q
ln
i
D
I
S
|
\

|
.
|

kT
q
1
I
S
dI
S
dT
=
v
D
T
V
T
1
I
S
dI
S
dT
=
v
D
V
GO
3V
T
T
V/K

dv
D
dT
=
0.651.12 0.075
( )
V
300K
= -1.82 mV/K ~ - 1.8 mV/C
Reverse Bias
External reverse bias adds to the built-in potential of the pn
junction. The shaded regions below illustrate the increase in the
characteristics of the space charge region due to an externally
applied reverse bias, v
D
.
Reverse Bias (cont.)
External reverse bias also increases the width of the depletion
region since the larger electric field must be supported by
additional charge.

w
d
= (x
n
+ x
p
) =
2c
s
q
1
N
A
+
1
N
D
|
\

|
.
|
|
j
+ v
R
( )

where w
d 0
= (x
n
+ x
p
) =
2c
s
q
1
N
A
+
1
N
D
|
\

|
.
|
|
j

w
d
= w
d
0
1+
v
R
|
j
Reverse Bias Saturation Current
We earlier assumed that reverse saturation current was constant.
Since it results from thermal generation of electron-hole pairs in
the depletion region, it is dependent on the volume of the space
charge region. It can be shown that the reverse saturation gradually
increases with increased reverse bias.

I
S
= I
S0
1+
v
R
|
j
I
S
is approximately constant at I
S0
under forward bias.
Reverse Breakdown
Increased reverse bias
eventually results in the diode
entering the breakdown
region, resulting in a sharp
increase in the diode current.
The voltage at which this
occurs is the breakdown
voltage, V
Z
.

Breakdown in not modeled
by the diode equation!

2 V < V
Z
< 2000 V
Reverse Breakdown Mechanisms
Avalanche Breakdown
Si diodes with V
Z
greater than about 5.6 volts breakdown according to
an avalanche mechanism. As the electric field increases, accelerated
carriers begin to collide with fixed atoms. As the reverse bias
increases, the energy of the accelerated carriers increases, eventually
leading to ionization of the impacted atoms. The new carriers also
accelerate and ionize other atoms. This process feeds on itself and
leads to avalanche breakdown.
Reverse Breakdown Mechanisms (cont.)
Zener Breakdown
Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped diodes. The heavy doping
results in a very narrow depletion region at the diode junction.
Reverse bias leads to carriers with sufficient energy to tunnel directly
between conduction and valence bands moving across the junction.
Once the tunneling threshold is reached, additional reverse bias leads
to a rapidly increasing reverse current.

Breakdown Voltage Temperature Coefficient
Temperature coefficient is a quick way to distinguish breakdown
mechanisms. Avalanche breakdown voltage increases with
temperature, zener breakdown voltage decreases with temperature.

For silicon diodes, zero temperature coefficient is achieved at
approximately 5.6 V.
Breakdown Region Diode Model

In breakdown, the diode is
modeled with a voltage source,
V
Z
, and a series resistance, R
Z
.
R
Z
models the slope of the i-v
characteristic.

Diodes designed to operate in
reverse breakdown are called
Zener diodes and use the
indicated symbol.
Reverse Bias Capacitance

Q
n
= qN
D
x
n
A = q
N
A
N
D
N
A
+ N
D
|
\

|
.
|
w
d
A Coulombs

C
j
=
dQ
n
dv
R
=
C
j 0
A
1+
v
R
|
j
F/cm
2
where C
j 0
=
c
s
w
d 0
Changes in voltage lead to changes in depletion width and charge.
This leads to a capacitance that we can calculate from the charge
voltage dependence.
C
j0
is the zero bias junction capacitance per unit area.
Note: charge on p-type side Q
p
is equal in magnitude to Q
n

Note: only w
d
depends on voltage in Q
n

Reverse Bias Capacitance (cont.)
Diodes can be designed with hyper-abrupt doping profiles that
optimize the reverse-biased diode as a voltage controlled capacitor.
Circuit symbol for the variable
capacitance diode (varactor)
Forward Bias Capacitance
Coulombs
T D D
i Q t =
( )
F
T
T D
T
T S D
D
D
j
V
i
V
I i
dv
dQ
C
t t
~
+
= =
In forward bias operation, additional charge is stored in neutral
region near edges of space charge region.

t
T
is called diode transit time and depends on size and type of
diode.
Diffusion capacitance, associated with the forward region of
operation, is proportional to current and becomes quite large at
high currents.
Schottky Barrier Diode
One semiconductor region of the pn
junction diode is replaced by a non-
ohmic rectifying metal contact.A
Schottky contact is easily added to
n-type silicon,metal region becomes
anode. n
+
region is added to ensure
that cathode contact is ohmic.
Schottky diode turns on at lower
voltage than pn junction diode, has
significantly reduced internal
charge storage under forward bias.
Diode Spice Model
R
s
is inevitable series resistance of a
real device structure. Current
controlled current source represents
ideal exponential behavior of diode.
Capacitor specification includes
depletion-layer capacitance for
reverse-bias region as well as
diffusion capacitance associated with
junction under forward bias.
Typical default values: Saturation
current = 10 fA, R
s
= 0O, Transit
time = 0 seconds
Diode Layout
Diode Circuit Analysis: Basics
V and R may represent Thvenin
equivalent of a more complex 2-
terminal network.Objective of
diode circuit analysis is to find
quiescent operating point for
diode, consisting of dc current and
voltage that define diodes i-v
characteristic.

Loop equation for given circuit is:

This is also called the load line for
the diode. Solution to this equation
can be found by:
Graphical analysis using load-line
method.
Analysis with diodes mathematical
model.
Simplified analysis with ideal
diode model.
Simplified analysis using constant
voltage drop model.

D D
V R I V + =
Load-Line Analysis (Example)
Problem: Find Q-point
Given data: V=10 V, R=10kO.
Analysis:

To define the load line we use,
V
D
= 0
V
D
= 5 V, I
D
=0.5 mA

These points and the resulting
load line are plotted.Q-point is
given by intersection of load line
and diode characteristic:

Q-point = (0.95 mA, 0.6 V)
10 10
4
D D
V I + =
mA 1 ) k 10 / V 10 ( = O =
D
I
Problem: Find Q-point for given diode
characteristic.
Given data: I
S
= 10
-13
A, n = 1, V
T
=
0.025 V
Analysis:





This equation is transcendental, so it
has no closed form solution.

Analysis using Mathematical Model for
Diode
( ) | |
( ) | |
D D
D
T
D
S D
V V
V
nV
V
I I
+ =
=
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

1 40 exp 10 10 10
1 40 exp 10 1 exp
13 4
13
By iteratively guessing values for V
D

and increasing or decreasing V
D
until
right side of equation equals 10:

Q-point = ( 0.943 mA, 0.574 V)

2 or 3 significant digits for V
D
is
usually plenty since I
S
, n, V
T
, and R
are rarely know to better precision.

Typically, we use SPICE if we want to
use full math model.
10 10
4
D D
V I + =
Analysis using Ideal Model for Diode
If diode is forward-biased, voltage across diode
is zero. If diode is reverse-biased, current
through diode is zero.
v
D
=0 for i
D
>0 and i
D
=0 for v
D
< 0
Thus diode is assumed to be either on or off.

Analysis is conducted in following steps:
Guess diodes region of operation from circuit.
Analyze circuit using diode model appropriate
for assumed operation region.
Check results to check consistency with
assumptions.
Analysis using Ideal Model for Diode:
Example
Assume diode is on (since it looks like
anode will be at high voltage than
cathode).


Q-point is(1 mA, 0V)
0
m 1
k 10
V ) 0 10 (
>
=
O

=
D
D
I
A I
(our assumption is right)
Assume diode is off. Hence I
D
=0 .
Loop equation is:


Q-point is (0, -10 V)
V 10
0 10 10
4
=
= + +
D
D D
V
I V
our assumption is right.
Analysis using Constant Voltage Drop
Model for Diode
Analysis:





Assume diode is on.

v
D
= V
on
for i
D
>0 and
v
D
= 0 for v
D
< V
on
.
mA 94 . 0
k 10
V ) 6 . 0 10 (
k 10
V ) 10 (
=
O

=
O

=
on
D
V
I
Ideal diode model is CVD model with V
on
= 0V.
Two-Diode Circuit Analysis
Analysis: Ideal diode model is chosen. Since
15V source is forcing positive current through
D
1
and D
2
and -10V source is forcing positive
current through D
2
, assume both diodes are on.
Since voltage at node D is zero due to short
circuit of ideal diode D
1
,



Q-points are (-0.5 mA, 0 V) and (2.0 mA, 0 V)
But, I
D1
<0 is not allowed by diode, so try again.
mA 5 . 1
k 10
V ) 0 15 (
1
=
O

= I
mA 2
k 5
V ) 10 ( 0
2
=
O

=
D
I
2 1 1 D D
I I I + = mA 5 . 0 2 5 . 1
1
= =
D
I
Two-Diode Circuit Analysis (contd.)
Since current in D
1
is zero, I
D2
= I
1
,




Q-points are D
1
: (0 mA, -1.67 V):off
D
2
: (1.67 mA, 0 V) :on

Analysis: Since current in
D
2
but that in D
1
is invalid,
the second guess is D
1
off
and D
2
on.
V 67 . 1 7 . 16 15 k 10 15
mA 67 . 1
15k
V 25
0 ) 10 ( k 5 k 10 15
1 1
1
2 1
= = =
=
O
=
=
I V
I
I I
D
D
Analysis of Diodes in Reverse
Breakdown Operation
Choose 2 points (0V, -4 mA) and (-5 V, -3
mA) to draw the load line.It intersects with i-v
characteristic at Q-point (-2.9 mA, -5.2 V).
Using piecewise linear model:
D
I
D
V 5000 20 + =
Using load-line analysis:
0 > =
D
I
Z
I
mA 94 . 2
5100
V ) 5 20 (
0 5 5100 20
=
O

=
=
Z
I
Z
I
Since I
Z
>0 (I
D
<0), solution is consistent
with Zener breakdown assumption.
Voltage Regulator using Zener Diode
Zener diode keeps voltage
across load resistor constant.
For Zener breakdown
operation, I
Z
>0.
mA 3
k 5
V ) 5 20 (
=
O

=
R
Z
V
S
V
S
I
mA 1
k 5
V 5
=
O
= =
L
R
Z
V
L
I
mA 2 = =
L
I
S
I
Z
I
0
1 1
> + =
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
L
R R Z
V
R
S
V
Z
I
For proper regulation, Zener current must be
positive. If Zener current <0, Zener diode no
longer controls voltage across load resistor
and voltage regulator is said to have
dropped out of regulation.
min
1
R
Z
V
S
V
R
L
R =

>
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
Voltage Regulator using Zener Diode:
Example (Including Zener Resistance)
Problem: Find output voltage and
Zener diode current for Zener diode
regulator.
Given data: V
S
=20 V, R=5 kO, R
Z
=
0.1 kO, V
Z
=5 V
Analysis: Output voltage is a
function of current through Zener
diode.
0 mA 9 . 1
100
V 5 V 19 . 5
100
V 5
V 19 . 5
0
5000 100
V 5
5000
V 20
> =
O

=
O

=
=
=
O
+
O

+
O

L
V
Z
I
L
V
L
V
L
V
Z
V
Line and Load Regulation
Line regulation characterizes how sensitive output voltage is to input
voltage changes.
S
dV
L
dV
= Line Regulation mV/V
For fixed load current, Line regulation =
Load regulation characterizes how sensitive output voltage is to changes
in load current withdrawn from regulator.
Load Regulation Ohms
For fixed input voltage, Load regulation =
Load regulation is Thvenin equivalent resistance looking back into
regulator from load terminals.
L
dI
L
dV
=
Z
R R
Z
R
+
) ( R
Z
R
Rectifier Circuits
Basic rectifiers convert an AC voltage to a pulsating DC
voltage.
A filter then eliminates pulsating components of the waveform
to produce a nearly constant DC voltage output.
Rectifier circuits are used in virtually all electronic devices to
convert the 120V-60Hz AC power line source to the DC voltages
required for operation of the electronic device.
In rectifier circuits, the diode state changes with time and a
given piecewise linear model is valid only for a certain time
interval.
Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with
Resistive Load
For positive half-cycle of input, source forces positive current through diode,
diode is on, v
o
= v
s
.
During negative half cycle, negative current cant exist in diode, diode is off,
current in resistor is zero and v
o
=0 .
An ideal diode model is assumed here.
Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with
Resistive Load (contd.)
Using CVD model, during on state of diode v
o
=(V
P
sinet)- V
on
. Output voltage is zero when
diode is off.
Often a step-up or step-down transformer is used
to convert 120 V-60 Hz voltage available from
power line to desired ac voltage level as shown.



Time-varying components in circuit output will
be removed using filter capacitor.
Peak Detector Circuit
As input voltage rises, diode is on and
capacitor (initially discharged) charges
up to input voltage minus the diode
voltage drop.
At peak of input, diode current tries to
reverse, diode cuts off, capacitor has no
discharge path and retains constant
voltage providing constant output voltage
V
dc
= V
P
- V
on
.
With no load, filtering is easy.

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with RC
Load
As input voltage rises during first quarter
cycle, diode is on and capacitor (initially
discharged) charges up to peak value of input
voltage.
At peak of input, diode current tries to reverse,
diode cuts off, capacitor discharges
exponentially through R. Discharge continues
till input voltage exceeds output voltage which
occurs near peak of next cycle. Process then
repeats once every cycle.
This circuit can be used to generate negative
output voltage if the top plate of capacitor is
grounded instead of bottom plate. In this case,
V
dc
= -(V
P
- V
on
)

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with RC
Load (contd.)
Output voltage is not constant as in ideal peak detector, but has ripple
voltage V
r
.
Diode conducts for a short time AT called conduction interval during
each cycle and its angular equivalent is called conduction angle
c
.
P
V
r
V
T
c
P
V
r
V
P
V
on
V
P
V
RC
T
T
C
T
R
on
V
P
V
T
T
RC
T
on
V
P
V
r
V
2
2
1
) (
2
1
) (
1 ) (
= A =
=

~ A

~
A
~
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
e u
e e
Approximations are valid for
small (< 10%) ripple voltages.
Half-Wave Rectifier Analysis: Example
Problem: Find DC output voltage, output current, ripple voltage, conduction
interval, conduction angle.
Given data: secondary voltage V
rms
=12.6 (60 Hz), R= 15 O, C= 25,000 F,
V
on
= 1 V
Analysis:



Using discharge interval T=1/60 s,
A 12 . 1
15
16.8V
16.8V V ) 1 2 6 . 12 (
=
O
=

=
= = =
R
on
V
P
V
dc
I
on
V
P
V
dc
V
ms 769 . 0
120
29 . 0
2
= = = = A
t t
u
e
u
f
c c
T
V 747 . 0
) (
=

~
C
T
R
on
V
P
V
r
V
0
6 . 16 rad 290 . 0
2
= = = A =
P
V
r
V
T
c
e u
Peak Diode Current
In rectifiers, nonzero current exists in
diode for only a very small fraction of
period T, yet an almost constant DC
current flows out of filter capacitor to
load.
Total charge lost from capacitor in each
cycle is replenished by diode during
short conduction interval causing high
peak diode currents. If repetitive current
pulse is modeled as triangle of height I
P

and width AT,

using values from previous example.
A 6 . 48
2
=
A
=
T
T
dc
I
P
I
Surge Current
Besides peak diode currents, when power supply is turned on, there is an
even larger current through diode called surge current.
During the first quarter cycle, current through the diode is approximately

Peak values of this initial surge current occurs at t = 0
+
:

using values from previous example.

Actual values of surge current wont be as large as predicted because of
neglected series resistance associated with rectifier diode as well as
transformer.
t
P
CV t
P
V
dt
d
C t
c
i t
d
i e e e cos sin ) ( ) ( = ~ =
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
A 168 = =
P
CV
SC
I e
Peak Inverse Voltage Rating
Peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating of the
rectifier diode gives the breakdown
voltage.
When diode is off, reverse-bias across
diode is V
dc
- v
s
. When v
s
reaches
negative peak,


PIV value corresponds to minimum
value of Zener breakdown voltage for
rectifier diode.
P
V
P
V
on
V
P
V
s
v
dc
V 2 ) (
min
PIV ~ = >
Average power dissipation in diode is given by



The simplification is done by assuming the triangular approximation of
diode current and that voltage across diode is constant at V
dc
.
Average power dissipation in the diode series resistance is given by


Diode Power Dissipation
dc
I
on
V
T
T
P
I
on
V dt
T
t
D
i
on
V
T
dt
T
t
D
i t
D
v
T
D
P
~
A
=
}
=
}
=
2
0
) (
1
0
) ( ) (
1
S
R
dc
I
T
T
T
T
S
R
P
I dt
T
S
R t
D
i
T
D
P
2
3
4
2
3
1
0
) (
2
1
A
=
A
=
}
=
Full-Wave Rectifiers
Full-wave rectifiers cut capacitor discharge
time in half and require half the filter
capacitance to achieve given ripple voltage.
All other specifications are the same as for
half-wave rectifiers.
Reversing polarity of diodes gives a full-
wave rectifier with negative output voltage.
Full-Wave Bridge Rectification
Requirement for a center-tapped
transformer in the full-wave
rectifier is eliminated through use
of 2 extra diodes.All other
specifications are same as for a
half-wave rectifier except
PIV=V
P
.
The four diodes in the bridge are
available in a single 4-terminal
package.
Rectifier Topology Comparison
The filter capacitor is a major factor in determining cost, size and
weight in design of rectifiers.
For a given ripple voltage, a full-wave rectifier requires half the filter
capacitance as that in half-wave rectifier. Benefits of full-wave
rectification outweigh increased expenses and circuit complexity (a extra
diode and center-tapped transformer).
Bridge rectification eliminates the center-tapped transformer, PIV rating
of diodes is reduced. Cost of extra diodes is negligible. This is the most
common choice.
Rectifier Design Analysis
Problem: Design rectifier with given specifications.
Given data: V
dc
=15 V, V
r
< 0.15 V, I
dc
= 2 A
Analysis: Use full-wave bridge rectifier that needs smaller value of filter
capacitance, smaller diode PIV rating and no center-tapped transformer.




A 7 . 94
0.352ms
s 1/60
A 2
2 T
2
ms 352 . 0
17V
V) 15 . 0 ( 2
120
1
2
1
T
F 111 . 0
V 15 . 0
1
s
120
1
A 2
2 /
rms
12V V
2
2 15
2
2
2
= =
A
=
= = = A
= = =
=
+
=
+
= =
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
T
dc
I
P
I
P
V
r
V
r
V
T
dc
I C
on
V
dc
V
P
V
V
t e
A 711 ) 17 )( 111 . 0 ( 120
surge
I = = = t e
P
CV
V 17 PIV = =
P
V
(large!)
Dynamic Switching Behavior of Diode
Non-linear depletion-layer capacitance
of diode prevents voltage from changing
instantaneously and determines turn-on
and recovery times. Both forward and
reverse current overshoot final value
when diode switches on and off as
shown. Storage time is given by:
(
(
(
(

=
R
I
F
I
T S
1 ln t t
Photo Diodes and Photodetectors
If depletion region of pn junction diode is illuminated with
light with sufficiently high frequency, photons can provide
enough energy to cause electrons to jump the semiconductor
bandgap to generate electron-hole pairs:
G
E
hc
h
P
E > = =

u
h = Plancks constant = 6.626 x 10
-34
J-s
= frequency of optical illumination
= wavelength of optical illumination
c = velocity of light = 3 x 10
8
m/s
Photon-generated current can be used in photodetector
circuits to generate output voltage

Diode is reverse-biased to enhance depletion-region width
and electric field.
R i
o
v
PH
=
Solar Cells and Light-Emitting Diodes
In solar cell applications, optical
illumination is constant, DC current I
PH
is
generated. Aim is to extract power from
cell, i-v characteristics are plotted in terms
of cell current and cell voltage. For solar
cell to supply power to external circuit,
I
C
V
C
product must be positive and cell
should be operated near point of maximum
output power P
max
.
Light-Emitting Diodes use recombination
process in forward-biased pn junction
diode. When a hole and electron
recombine, energy equal to bandgap of
semiconductor is released as a photon.