SEU3003 SemiconductorMaterial

SEU 3003
ELEKTRONIK
(ELECTRONICS)
Chapter 1
SEMICONDUCTORS MATERIALS
Dr. Norlaili Mat Safri

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 1
In this chapter, we will learn:
• Atomic structure
• Energy band
• Materials classification
• Covalent bonds
• Conduction in semiconductors
• Free electron and hole as carrier of current
• Doping of semiconductor materials
• The p-n junction
• Biasing the p-n junction
Atomic Structure
All matter is made of atoms.

All atoms consist of electrons, proton, and neurons.
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the
characteristics of that element.
Each of the known 109 elements has atoms that are different
from the atoms of all other elements.
This gives each element a unique atomic structure.
According to the classical Bohr model, atoms have a
planetary type of structure that consists of a central nucleus
surrounded by orbiting electrons.

Activity
According to the classical Bohr model, atoms have a

planetary type of structure that consists of a central nucleus
surrounded by orbiting electrons.
Draw the atomic structure according to Bohr model

Atomic Structure (The Bohr Model)
-
-
- • The nucleus consists of

positively charged
+ particles called protons
+ ++
+ +
- and uncharged particles
-
called neutrons.
• The basic particles of
- negative charge are
called electrons.
- Electron + Proton Neutron
Atomic Number
Each type of atom has a certain number of electrons and
protons that distinguishes it from the atoms of all other
elemens.
All elements are arranged in the periodic table of the elements
in order according to their atomic number.
The atomic number = the number of protons in the nucleus,
which is the same number of electrons in an electrically
balanced (neutral) atom.
Eg. Atomic number of hydrogen = 1; helium = 2.
Nucleus Nucleus
- Electron
+ ++
Electron - Electron -
Hydrogen atom Helium atom

Energy band
• Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom at certain distances

from the nucleus.
• Electrons near the nucleus have less energy than those in
more distant orbits.
• It is known that only discrete values of electron energies exist
within atomic structures.
• Therefore, electrons must orbit only at discrete distances from
the nucleus.
• Each discrete distance (orbit) from the nucleus corresponds to
a certain energy level.

Energy band
• In an atom, the orbits are grouped into energy bands known as

shells.
• A given atom has a fixed number of shells.
• Each shell has a fixed maximum number of electrons at
permissible energy levels (orbits).
• The differences in energy levels within a shell are much
smaller than the difference in energy between shells.
• The shells are designated 1,2,3,… with 1 being closest to the
nucleus.
• Some references designate shells by the letters K,L,M,….

Energy band
Energy
• Right figure shows the 1st shell

-
with one energy level and the
2nd shell with two energy levels. -
• Additional shells may exist in
- -
other types of atoms, depending -
+
on the element. + ++ -
+ +
Nucleus
Shell 1
(K)
Shell 2
Energy increases as the distance (L)
from the nucleus increases

Energy band (Valence Electrons)
• Electrons that are in orbits farther from the nucleus have
higher energy and are less tightly bound to the atom than
those close to the nucleus.
• This is because the force of attraction between the positively
charged nucleus and the negatively charged electron
decreases with increasing distance from the nucleus.
• Electrons with the highest energy exist in the outermost shell
of an atom and are relatively loosely bound to the atom.
• This outermost shell is known as the valence shell and
electrons in this shell are called valence electrons.
• These valence electrons contribute to chemical reactions and
bonding within the structure of a material and determine its
electrical properties.Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 10
Energy band
(The number of electrons in each shell)
• The maximum number of electrons (Ne) that can exist in each
shell of an atom is a fact of nature and can be calculated by
the formula,
Ne = 2n2
where n is the number of the shell.
• The innermost shell is number 1, the next shell is number 2,
and so on.
• The maximum number of electrons that can exist in the
innermost shell (shell 1) is
N e = 2n 2
= 2(1)
Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial
2
=2 11
Activity
• Calculate the maximum number of electrons that can

exist in the 2nd shell , 3rd shell and 4th shell

Energy band
(The number of electrons in each shell)
• All shells in a given atom must be completely filled with
electrons except the outer (valence shell).
• Eg. Silicon has 14 electrons. Therefore, it has ___ electrons in
the 1st shell, ___ electrons in the 2nd shell and ___ electrons in
the 3rd shell. Silicon also has ___ valence electrons.

MATERIALS CLASSIFICATION
• In terms of their electrical properties, materials can be
classified into three groups: conductors, semiconductors, and
insulators.
• The ability of a material to conduct current is based on its
atomic structure.
• The orbit paths of the electrons surrounding the nucleus are
called shells.
• Each shell has a defined number of electrons it will hold;
determined by the formula, 2n2.
• The outer shell is called the valence shell.
• The less complete a shell is filled to capacity the more
conductive the material is.
Activity
The less complete a shell is filled to capacity the more

conductive the material is.
Which means that it is the valence shell that determines the
ability of material to conduct current.
Draw the atomic structure of Silicon (14), Copper

(29), and Argon (18) and determine the most and
less conductive of the three materials.

Silicon Cooper Argon

-
- - - - -
- - - - - -
- - -
- - - - - -
- -
- - - +14 - - - - - +29 - - - - - - +18 - - -
-
-
- - - - - - - -
- - - - - - -
- - -
-
Silicon, Cooper, and Argon have

____, ____, and ____ valence electron(s), respectively.
Conductors Semiconductors Insulators
Cooper (29) Carbon (6) Neon (10)

Silver (47) Silicon (14) Argon (18)
Gold (79) Germanium (32) Krypton (36)
Aluminium (13) Xenon (54)
Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators have

____, ____, and ____ valence electron(s), respectively.

Energy band for each type of material
Energy (eV) Energy (eV) Energy (eV)
Conduction band
Conduction band Energy gap
Energy gap
Conduction band
Overlap
Valence band Valence band Valence band
0 0 0
Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

Activity
Silicon and Germanium are semiconductive materials.

However, Silicon is the most widely used in material in
diodes, transistors, integrated circuits and other
semiconductive devices.
Use the valence shell and energy level to explain the

reason behind the usage of Silicon rather than
Germanium as semiconductive material in electronic
devices.
COVALENT BONDS
When atoms combine to form a solid, crystalline material,

they arrange themselves in a symmetrical pattern.
The atoms within the crystal structure are held together by
covalent bonds, which are created by the interaction of the
valence electrons of the atoms.
Covalent bonding is a bonding of two or more atoms

by the interaction (sharing) of their valence electrons.

COVALENT BONDS
• Shown in this figure is how each silicon atom positions itself

with four adjacent silicon atoms to form a silicon crystal.
• A silicon (Si) atom with its four valence electrons shares an
electron with each of its four neighbors.
• This effectively creates eight shared valence electrons for
each atom and produces a state of chemical stability.
• Also, this sharing of valence electrons produces the covalent
bonds that hold the atoms together; each valence electron is
attracted by the two adjacent atoms which share it.

Activity
Based from statements stated in the previous slide,

illustrates the covalent bonds in silicon.

COVALENT BONDS

COVALENT BONDS
• Certain atoms will combine in this way to form a crystal

structure. Silicon atoms combine in this way in their intrinsic
or pure state.
• An intrinsic crystal is one
that has no impurities
(100% pure material).
• Covalent bonding for
germanium is similar
because it also has four
valence electrons.

CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS
The way a material conducts electrical current is important in

understanding how electronic devices operate.
You can’t really understand the operation of a device such as
diode or transistor without knowing something about the
basic current mechanisms.
As you have learned, the electrons of an atom can exist only
within prescribed energy bands.
Each shell around the nucleus corresponds to a certain energy
band and is separated from adjacent shells by energy gaps, in
which no electrons can exist.

Below figure shows the energy band diagram for an
unexcited (no external energy such as heat) atom in a pure
silicon crystal.
This condition occurs only at a temperature of absolute
0 Kelvin. Energy (eV)
Conduction band
Energy gap = 1.1 eV
Valence band - - - -
Fig: Energy band diagram Energy gap
for an unexcited atom in a 2nd band (shell 2) - - - - - - - -
pure (intrinsic) silicon crystal. Energy gap
There are no electrons in the 1 band (shell 1)
st
- -
conduction band.
+
Nucleus 0 + +++
+
(Conduction Electrons and Holes)
• An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room temperature has
sufficient heat (thermal) energy for some valence electrons to
jump the gap from the valence band into the conduction band,
becoming free electrons.
electrons
• Free electrons are also called conduction electrons.
electrons
When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is
left in the valence band within the crystal.
• This vacancy is called a hole.
hole
• For every electron raised to the conduction band by external
energy, there is one hole left in the valence band, creating
what is called an electron-hole pair.
pair
• Recombination occurs when a conduction band electron loses
energy and falls back into a hole in the valence band.
Activity

illustrates the free electron, hole and electron-hole
pair in an energy diagram of a silicon crystal when
the silicon crystal receives heat energy.

Effect of Temperature
Energy (eV)
Electron-hole pair
Conduction band - - Free electron
Energy gap
Valence band - - - - - Hole
-
Energy gap Heat
2 band (shell 2) - - - - - - - -
nd
- - - - - - - - energy
Energy gap
1 band (shell 1)
st
- - - -
+ +
Nucleus 0 + +++ + ++
+ ++

Effect of Temperature
(bonding diagram)
- - Free electron
-
- Si - - Si -
- - - - - - -
- - - Hole - Heat
- Si Si Si - - Si Si Si - energy
- - - - - -
- - - -
- -
- Si - - Si -
- -
As temperature increases, a bond can
At 0K, no bonds are broken. break, releasing a valence electron and
Si is an insulator. leaving a broken bond (hole).
Current can flow.
To summarize,
a piece of intrinsic silicon at room temperature has, at any
instant, a number of conduction band (free) electrons that are
unattached to any atom and are essentially drifting randomly
throughout the material.
There is also an equal number of holes in the valence band
created when these electrons jump into the conduction band.

CONDUCTION ELECTRONS AND HOLES
- -
- - - -
Recombination of
- -
- - - -
-
- an electron with a
-
Si Si Si Si Si Si
- -
- -- - - - - - - hole
- - - - -
- - - -
Si Si Si Si Si Si - Generation of an
- - - -
-- - - --
- - -
- - - - electron-hole pair
-
-
- - - -
Si
- Si Si - Si Si Si
-
- - - - - -
- - - -
Heat energy
Fig: Electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal.

Free electrons are being generated continuously
while some recombine with holes.
Outline
ELECTRON AND HOLE CURRENT
When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon,
the thermally generated free electrons in the conduction band,
which are free to move randomly in the crystal structure, are
now easily attracted toward the positive end.
This movement of free electrons is one type of current in a
semiconductive material and is called electron current.
Activity
Based from above statements, illustrates the
movement of free electrons in figure shown in the
next slide.
Activity
- -
- - - - - -
-- - -
Si-
-
Si - -- - Si Si Si Si -
- --- -- - -- - -
- - - --
－ Si Si Si Si Si Si -
- - -- - -
-- -
-
- -- - - -- - -
＋
- -
-
Si Si -
- - Si
-
Si Si Si
- - - - - -
- - - -
V
Fig: Electron current in intrinsic silicon is produced by

the movement of thermally generated free electrons.

Activity
- -
- - - - - -
- - --
Si - -- Si Si Si Si Si -
- -
- -- - - - -
- -- - -- - -- --
－ Si Si Si Si Si Si -
- - -- -
-- -
-
- -- - --- -- ＋
-
-- -
- -
Si - Si Si Si Si Si
- - -
- -
- -
- - -
V
Fig: Electron current in intrinsic silicon is produced by

the movement of thermally generated free electrons.

Another type of current occurs in the valence band, where the
holes created by the free electrons exist.
Electrons remaining in the valence band are still attached to
their atoms and are not free to move randomly in the crystal
structure as are the free electrons.
However, a valence electron can move into a nearby hole
with little change in its energy level, thus leaving another hole
where it came from.
Effectively, the hole has moved from one place to another
place in the crystal structure.
• This is called hole current.

- -
- - - - - -
- - - -
- -
Si Si Si Si Si Si -
- -
- -- - - - - 1 - -
- - - - -
- - - -
Si Si Si Si Si Si -
- - - -
-- - - --
- - -
- - - -
-
-
- - - -
Si
- Si Si - Si Si Si
-
- - - - - -
- - - -
Heat energy
Fig: Hole current in intrinsic silicon crystal.

Outline
- -
- - - - - -
- - - -
- -
Si Si Si Si Si Si -
-
-
- - -- - - - - -
- - - - -
- - 2 - -
Si Si Si Si Si Si -
- - - -
-- - - --
- - -
- - - -
-
-
- - - -
Si
- Si Si - Si Si Si
-
- - - - - -
- - - -
Heat energy

Outline
- -
- - - - - -
- - - -
- -
Si Si Si Si Si Si -
-
-
- - -- - - - - -
- - - - - -
- 3 - -
Si Si Si Si Si Si -
- - - -
-- - - --
- - -
- - - -
-
-
- - - -
Si
- Si Si - Si Si Si
-
- - - - - -
- - - -
Heat energy

Outline
- -
- - - - - -
- - - -
- -
Si Si Si Si Si Si -
-
-
- - -- - - - - -
- - - - - -
- - - -
Si Si Si Si Si Si -
- - - 4
-- - - --
- - -
- - - -
-
-
- - - -
Si
- Si Si - Si Si Si
-
- - - - - -
- - - -
Heat energy

1. A free electron
leaves hole in a
valence shell.
-
-
- - - -
-
- -
-
Si Si Si Si Si -
-
- - -
-
- - - -

1. A free electron
leaves hole in a
2. A valence electron valence shell.
moves into 1st hole -
- and leaves a 2nd hole
- - -
-
- - -
-
Si Si Si Si Si -
-
- - -
-
- - - -

3. A valence electron
moves into 2nd hole 1. A free electron
and leaves a 3rd hole leaves hole in a
2. A valence electron valence shell.
moves into 1st hole -
- and leaves a 2nd hole
- - - -
-
- -
-
Si Si Si Si Si -
-
- - -
-
- - - -

moves into 2nd hole 1. A free electron
and leaves a 3rd hole leaves hole in a
4. A valence electron 2. A valence electron valence shell.
moves into 3nd hole moves into 1st hole -
- and leaves a 4rd hole and leaves a 2nd hole
- - -
-
- - -
-
Si Si Si Si Si -
-
- - -
-
- - - -

5. A valence electron 3. A valence electron

moves into 4th hole moves into 2nd hole 1. A free electron
and leaves a 5th hole and leaves a 3rd hole leaves hole in a
4. A valence electron 2. A valence electron valence shell.
moves into 3rd hole moves into 1st hole -
- and leaves a 4th hole and leaves a 2nd hole
- - - -
-
- -
-
Si Si Si Si Si -
-
- - -
-
- - - -


6. A valence electron 4. A valence electron 2. A valence electron valence shell.
moves into 5th hole moves into 3rd hole moves into 1st hole -
and leaves a 6th hole
- - -
-
-
- -
-
Si Si Si Si Si -
-
- - -
-
- - - -


- - - -
- - -
-
Si Si Si Si Si -
-
- - -
-
- - - -
moves into 6th hole

and leaves a 6th hole and leaves a 4th hole and leaves a 2nd hole
- - - -
- - - -
-
Si Si Si Si Si -
-
- - -
-
- - - -
7. A valence electron moves into 7th hole
moves into 6th hole and leaves a 8th hole
Activity
Lets review (Covalent bond):
1. How are covalent bonds formed?
Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of valence
electrons with neighboring atoms.
2. What is meant by the term intrinsic?
An intrinsic material is one that is in a pure state.
3. What is a crystal?
A crystal is a solid material formed by atoms bonding
together in a fixed patterns.
4. Effectively, how many valence electrons are there in each
atom within a silicon crystal?
There are eight shared valence electrons in each atom
of a silicon crystal.
Activity
Lets review (Conduction in semiconductors):
1. Are free electrons in the valence band or in the
conduction band?
Free electrons are in the conduction band.
2. Which electrons are responsible for current in a material?
Free (conduction) electrons are responsible for current
in a material.
3. What is a hole?
A hole is the absence of an electron in the valence
band.
4. At what energy level does hole current occur?
Hole current occurs at the valence level.

Outline
DOPING
Semiconductive materials do not conduct current well and are
of limited value in their intrinsic state.
This is because of the limited number of free electrons in the
conduction band and holes in the valence band.
Intrinsic silicon (or germanium) must be modified by
increasing the number of free electrons or holes to increase its
conductivity and make it useful in electronic devices.
This is done by adding impurities to the intrinsic material.
• This process is called doping.
• Two types of extrinsic (impure) semiconductive materials are
n-type and p-type.

DOPING
(N-type Semiconductor)
• To increase the number of conduction band electrons in
intrinsic silicon, pentavalent impurity atoms are added.
These are atoms with five valence electrons such as arsenic
(As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi) and antimony (Sb).
Each pentavalent atom forms covalent bonds with four
adjacent silicon atoms.
Four of the pentavalent atom’s valence electrons are used to
form the covalent bonds with silicon atoms, leaving one extra
electron.
This extra electron becomes a conduction electron because it
is not attached to any atom.
• Because the pentavalent atom gives up an electron, it is often
called a donor atom.
atomDr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 52
Activity

illustrates the pentavalent impurity atom (antimony,
in this case) with its four adjacent silicon atoms in a
silicon crystal structure using bonding diagram.

DOPING
(N-type Semiconductor) - Free electron
-
- Si -
Fig: Pentavalent impurity in a silicon - - - -
crystal structure. An antimony (Sb) - -
impurity atom is shown in the center. - Si Sb Si -
The extra electron from the Sb atom - - -
- - -
becomes a free electron.
- Si -
The number of conduction electrons can be carefully

controlled by the number of pentavalent impurity atoms
added to the silicon.
A conduction electron created by this doping process does not
leave a hole in the valence band because it is in excess of the
number required to fill the valence band.
DOPING
(N-type Semiconductor)
Majority and Minority Carriers
• Since most of the current carriers are electrons, silicon or
germanium doped with pentavalent atoms is an n-type
semiconductor (the n stands for negative charge of an
electron).
• The electrons are called the majority carriers in n-type
material.
In n-type semiconductor, there are also a few holes that are
created when electron-hole pairs are thermally generated.
• These holes are not produced by the addition of the
pentavalent impurity atoms.
• Holes in an n-type material are called minority carriers.
carriers
DOPING
(P-type Semiconductor)
• To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon, trivalent
impurity atoms are added.
These are atoms with three valence electrons such as boron
(B), indium (In) and gallium (Ga).
Each trivalent atom forms covalent bonds with four adjacent
silicon atoms;
And, since four electron electrons are required, a hole results
when each trivalent atom is added.
• Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often
referred to as an acceptor atom.
atom

Activity

illustrates the trivalent impurity atom (boron, in this
case) with its four adjacent silicon atoms in a silicon
crystal structure using bonding diagram.

DOPING
(P-type Semiconductor) -
Hole from
- Si -
B atom
Fig: Trivalent impurity in a silicon - - -
crystal structure. A boron (B) impurity - -
atom is shown in the center. - Si B Si -
- - -
- - -
- Si -
The number of holes can be carefully controlled by the

number of trivalent impurity atoms added to the silicon.
• A hole created by this doping process is not accompanied by

a conduction (free) electron.

DOPING
(P-type Semiconductor)
Majority and Minority Carriers
• Since most of the current carriers are holes, silicon or
germanium doped with trivalent atoms is an p-type
semiconductor.
Holes can be thought of as positive charges because the
absence of an electron leaves a net positive charge on the
atom.holes are called the majority carriers in p-type material.
• The
In p-type semiconductor, there are also a few free electrons
that are created when electron-hole pairs are thermally
generated.
• These free electrons are not produced by the addition of the
trivalent impurity atoms.
• Electrons in p-type material are the minority carriers.
carriers
In summary:
N-type semiconductor P-type semiconductor

- - -
- - -
-
- - - - - -
-
- -
- - - -
-
- - -
- - - -
Si Si Si Si Si Si - Si Si Si Si Si Si -
- -
- - -
-
- - - -
-
- - - - - - - -
- - -
- - -
- - - - - - -- -
- - - - - -
- - -
Si Si Sb Si Si Sb - Si Si B Si Si B -
- - - - - - -
- - - - -
- - -
- - - - - - - -
-
- - - - - - -
-
-
-
- -
-
- -
- - - -
Si
- Si -Si Si Sb Si Si Si Si - Si B Si
-
- - - -
- -
- - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - -
Free electrons > Holes Holes > Free electrons

Outline
PN JUNCTION
• If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that part is n-type

and the other part is p-type, a pn junction forms at the
boundary between the two regions.
The p region has many holes (majority carriers) from the
impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated free
electrons (minority carriers).
The n region has many free electrons (majority carriers) from
the impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated holes
(minority carriers).

PN JUNCTION
A p-type material consists of silicon atoms and trivalent
impurity atoms such as boron.
However, since the number of protons and the number of
electrons are equal throughout the material, there is no net
charge in the material and so it is neutral.
An n-type silicon material consists of silicon atoms and
pentavalent impurity atoms such as antimony.
As you have learned, an impurity atom releases an electron
when it bonds with four silicon atoms.
Since there is still an equal number of protons and electrons
(including the free electrons) throughout the material, there is
no net charge in the material and so it is neutral.
Activity
Based from statements stated in the previous slides,

illustrates the p region, the n region, the pn junction
and the majority and minority carriers.

PN JUNCTION
pn junction
P region N region
- - - - -
-
- - - - -
- -
- - - -
- - - -
- - - -
- - - -
- -
- -
- - - -
Hole - Randomly drifting free electron
Fig: Structure at the instant of junction formation

showing only the majority and minority carriers.

PN JUNCTION
(Formation of the depletion region (kaw. susutan)
• As you have seen, the free electrons in the n region are
randomly drifting in all directions.
• At the instant of the pn junction formation, the free electrons
near the junction in the n region begin to diffuse across the
junction into the p region where they combine with holes near
the junction.
• Before the pn junction is formed, recall that there are as many
electrons as protons in the n-type material, making the
material neutral in terms of net charge.
• The same is true for the p-type material.

PN JUNCTION
• When the pn junction is formed, the n region loses free
electrons as they diffuse across the junction.
This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions)
near the junction.
• As the electrons move across the junction, the p region loses
holes as the electrons and holes combine.
This creates a layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) near
the junction.
• These two layers of positive and negative charges form the
depletion region.
region

Activity
Based from statements stated in the previous slides,

illustrates the p region, the n region, the majority
and minority carriers and the depletion region.

PN JUNCTION
pn junction depletion region
P region N region
}
- - - - - - + - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - + - - - - -
-- - - - - - +- - - - -
- - - - + - -
- - - - - - -
- - + - -
- - - - - - - - + - - -
- - - - - - - + -
- - - -
Hole - Randomly drifting free electron

Fig (a): At the instant of junction Fig (b): For every electron that diffuses
formation, free electrons in the n across the junction and combines with a
region near pn junction begin to hole, a positive charge is left in the n region
diffuse across the junction and fall into and a negative charge is created in the p
holes near the junction in the p region. region, forming a barrier potential. This
action continues until the voltage of the
barrier repels further diffusion.
PN JUNCTION
(Barrier potential)
Any time there is a positive charge and a negative charge near
each other, there is a force acting on the charges as described
by Coulomb’s law.
In the depletion region there are many positive charges and
many negative charges on opposite sides of the pn junction.
The forces between the opposite charges form a field of
forces called an electric field.
This electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n
region, and energy must be expended to move an electron
through the electric field.
That is, external energy must be applied to get the electrons to
move across the barrier of the electric field in the depletion
region. Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 69
PN JUNCTION
(Barrier potential)
The potential difference of the electric field across the
depletion region is the amount of voltage required to move
electrons through the electric field.
This potential difference is called the barrier potential and is
expressed in volts.
depletion region
Fig (b): For every electron that diffuses
}
across the junction and combines with a - + - - - - -
hole, a positive charge is left in the n region - - + - - - - -
and a negative charge is created in the p - +- - - - -
- - + - -
region, forming a barrier potential. This - - - -
- + - - - -
action continues until the voltage of the - - + - - - -
barrier repels further diffusion. - + -
- Randomly drifting free electron
Hole
Barrier
Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial potential 70
PN JUNCTION
(Energy diagram illustrating the formation
of the pn junction and depletion region)
Energy Energy
Minority Majority P region N region
carriers carriers
Conduction - Conduction -
- - -- - - - - - - -
band - - -- - -- band
- - - - -
-
- - - - --
Valence - - Valence
band band
Majority
carriers Minority carriers
0 P region N region 0
pn junction
pn junction and depletion region
Fig (a): At the instant of junction formation (b): At equilibrium
PN JUNCTION
(Barrier potential)
A simplified 1-D sketch of a pn
junction (a) has a doping profile
(b).
The 3-D representation (c) shows
the cross sectional area of the
junction.

ELECTRON AND HOLE
(Concentration)
n = electron concentration
ni2 = n ⋅ p
p = hole concentration
n-type:
n = ND, the donor concentration p = n / ND
2
i
p-type:
p = NA, the acceptor concentration n = n / NA
2
i

ELECTRON AND HOLE
(Intrinsic carrier concentration)
− Eg
ni = BT e 32 2 kT
B – coefficient related to specific semiconductor

T – temperature in Kelvin
Eg – semiconductor bandgap energy
k – Boltzmann’s constant

PN JUNCTION
(Barrier potential@ Built-in potential)
This movement of
carriers creates a
space charge or
depletion region
with an induced
electric field near
x = 0.
A potential
voltage, vbi, is
developed across
the junction.
PN JUNCTION
(Barrier potential@ Built-in potential)
kT  N a N d   Na Nd 
V bi = ln 2
 = VT ln
  n2


e  ni   i 
VT – thermal voltage
(= 0.026 V at room temperature (T = 300K))

Outline
BIASING THE PN JUNCTION
• As you have learned, no electrons move through the pn

junction at equilibrium.
• Generally, the term bias refers to the use of a dc voltage to
establish certain operating conditions for an electronic device.
In relation to a diode, there are two bias conditions: forward
and reverse.
• Either of these bias conditions is established by connecting a
sufficient dc voltage of the proper polarity across the pn
junction.

Outline
FORWARD BIASED PN JUNCTION
• To bias a pn junction (a diode), you apply a dc voltage across

it.
• Forward bias is the condition that allows current through the
pn junction.
• 1st requirement for forward bias: negative side of bias voltage
is connected to n region of the diode and the positive side is
connected to the p region.
• 2nd requirement for forward bias:
bias voltage > barrier potential

depletion region
}
- + - - - - -
- - + - - - - -
- +- - - - -
- - + - -
- - - -
- + - - - -
- - + - - - -
- + -
P region N region
Barrier
R
potential
+ －
Vbias
depletion region
}
- - - - - - -
- - + - - - - -
- + - - - -
- - - -
- - - -
- + - - -
- - + -
- - -
- + - -
P region N region
Barrier
R
potential
+ －
Vbias
depletion region
}
- - - - - -
- - + - - -
- - -
- - - -
- - -
- - - - -
- + - - -
- - + - -
- - -
- - -
P region N region
Barrier
R
potential
+ －
Vbias
depletion region
}
- - - - - -
- - + - - - -
- - - - -
- - -
- - +- - - - - - -
- - -
- - + - - -
- - -
P region N region
Barrier
R
potential
+ －
Vbias
depletion region
}
- - - - - -
- -+ - - - -
- - - - -
- - -
- - +- - - - - - -
- - -
- - + - - -
- - -
P region N region
Barrier
R
potential
+ －
Vbias
depletion region
}
- - - - -
- -+ - - - -
- - - - -
- - -
- - - +- - - - - - -
-
- - -+ - - - -
- - -
P region N region
Barrier
R
potential
+ －
Vbias
FORWARD BIASED THE PN JUNCTION
(Effect of forward bias on the depletion region)
As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number

of positive ions is reduced.
• As more holes effectively flow into the depletion region on
the other side of the pn junction, the number of negative ions
is reduced.
This reduction in positive and negative ions during forward
bias causes the depletion region to narrow.

Outline
FORWARD BIASED THE PN JUNCTION
(Effect of barrier potential during forward bias)
Recall that the electric field between the positive and negative
ions in the depletion region on either side of the junction
creates an “energy hill” that prevents free electrons from
diffusing across the junction at equilibrium.
• This is known as barrier potential.
potential
When forward bias is applied, the free electrons are provided
with enough energy from the bias-voltage source to overcome
the barrier potential and effectively “climb the energy hill”
and cross the depletion region.
The energy that the electrons require in order to pass through
the depletion region is equal to the barrier potential.
In other words, the electrons give up an amount of energy
equivalent to the barrier potential when they cross the
depletion region. Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 86
Outline
Applied voltage, vD, induces an electric field, EA, in the opposite

direction as the original space-charge electric field, resulting in a
smaller net electric field and smaller barrier between n and p
regions.
REVERSE BIASED PN JUNCTION
• To bias a pn junction (a diode), you apply a dc voltage across

it.
Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current
through the diode.
• Requirement for reverse bias: positive side of bias voltage is
connected to n region of the diode and the negative side is
connected to the p region.

depletion region
}
- + - - - - -
- - + - - - - -
- +- - - - -
- - + - -
- - - -
- + - - - -
- - + - - - -
- + -
P region N region
Barrier
R
potential
－ +
Vbias
depletion region
}
- ++ - - - -
- - ++ - - - - -
-
- ++ - - - -
- -
- ++ -- - - -
- ++ - - - -
- - ++ -
-
- ++ - - - -
P region N region
Barrier
R
potential
－ +
Vbias
depletion region
}
- ++ - - - -
- - ++ - - - - -
- -
- ++ - - - -
--- - - -
- ++ -- - - -
- ++ - - - -
- - ++ -
-
- ++ - - - -
P region N region
Barrier
R
potential
－ +
Vbias
depletion region
}
- - ++ - - - -
- - - ++ - - - - -
- -
- - ++ - - - -
-- -
- - ++ -- - - -
- - - ++ -
- - -
- - ++ - -
- - ++ - - - -
P region N region
Barrier
R
potential
－ +
Vbias
(Reverse current)
• The extremely small current exists in reverse bias after the
transition current dies out is caused by the minority carriers in
the n and p regions that are produced by thermally generated
electron-hole pairs.
• The small number of free minority electrons in the p region
are “pushed” toward the pn junction by the negative bias
voltage.
• When these electrons reach the wide depletion region, they
“fall down the energy hill” and combine with the minority
holes in the n region as valence electrons and flow towards
the positive bias voltage, creating a small hole current.

(Reverse breakdown)
Normally, the reverse current is so small that it can be
neglected.
However, if the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a
value called the breakdown voltage, the reverse current will
drastically increase.
• The high reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free
minority electrons so that as they speed through the p region,
they collide with atoms with enough energy to knock valence
electrons out of orbit and into the conduction band.
The newly created conduction electrons are also high in
energy and repeat the process.
• If one electron knocks only two others out of their valence
orbit during its travel through the p region, the number
quickly multiply. (known as avalanche)
avalanche
Increase in space-charge width, W, as VR increases to VR+∆VR.

Creation of more fixed charges (-∆Q and +∆Q) leads to junction
capacitance.

SEU3003 SemiconductorMaterial

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SEU 3003

Dr. Norlaili Mat Safri

All matter is made of atoms.

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 3

According to the classical Bohr model, atoms have a

Draw the atomic structure according to Bohr model

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 4

- • The nucleus consists of

Hydrogen atom Helium atom

• Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom at certain distances

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 7

• In an atom, the orbits are grouped into energy bands known as

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 8

• Right figure shows the 1st shell

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 9

• Calculate the maximum number of electrons that can

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 12

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 13

The less complete a shell is filled to capacity the more

Draw the atomic structure of Silicon (14), Copper

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 15

Silicon Cooper Argon

Silicon, Cooper, and Argon have

Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

Cooper (29) Carbon (6) Neon (10)

Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators have

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 17

Conduction band Energy gap

Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 18

Silicon and Germanium are semiconductive materials.

Use the valence shell and energy level to explain the

When atoms combine to form a solid, crystalline material,

Covalent bonding is a bonding of two or more atoms

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 20

• Shown in this figure is how each silicon atom positions itself

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 21

Based from statements stated in the previous slide,

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 22

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 23

• Certain atoms will combine in this way to form a crystal

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 24

The way a material conducts electrical current is important in

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 25

Based from statements stated in the previous slide,

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 28

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 29

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 31

Fig: Electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal.

Fig: Electron current in intrinsic silicon is produced by

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 34

Fig: Electron current in intrinsic silicon is produced by

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 35

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 36

Fig: Hole current in intrinsic silicon crystal.

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 37

Fig: Hole current in intrinsic silicon crystal.

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 38

Fig: Hole current in intrinsic silicon crystal.

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 39

Fig: Hole current in intrinsic silicon crystal.

Dr. N.M. Safri/SEU3003_SemiconductorMaterial 40