Figure 2.1 Three types of potentiometric devices for measuring displacements (a) Translational. (b) Single-turn). (c) Multi-turn.

(From Measurement Systems: Application and Design, by E. O. Doebelin. Copyright 1990 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Co.)
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

c R2 Rx ui Ry a R3 R4 C D Ri (a) Strain-gage wires b B Armature Diaphragm

R1
A

(b)

D uo

Figure 2.2 (a) Unbonded strain-gage pressure sensor. The diaphragm is directly coupled by an armature to an unbonded strain-gage system. With increasing pressure, the strain on gage pair B and C is increased, while that on gage pair A and D is decreased. (b) Wheatstone bridge with four active elements. R1 = A, R2 = B, R3 = D, and R4 = C when the unbonded strain gage is connected for translation motion. Resistor Ry and potentiometer Rx are used to initially balance the bridge. vi is the applied voltage and Dv0 is the output voltage on a voltmeter or similar device with an internal resistance of Ri.
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 2.3 Typical bonded strain-gage units (a) Resistance-wire type. (b) Foil type. (c) Helical-wire type. Arrows above units show direction of maximal sensitivity to strain.[Parts (a) and (b) are modified from Instrumentation in Scientific Research, by K. S. Lion. Copyright 1959 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Co.]
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 2.4 Typical semiconductor strain-gage units (a) Unbonded, uniformly doped. (b) Diffused ptype gage. (c) Integrated pressure sensor. (d) Integrated cantileverbeam force sensor. (From Transducers for Biomedical Measurements: Application and Design, by R. S. C. Cobbold. Copyright 1974, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

4 cm Clear plastic To patient Gel Saline Flush valve IV tubing

Silicon chip

Electrical cable

Figure 14.15 Isolation in a disposable blood-pressure sensor. Disposable blood pressure sensors are made of clear plastic so air bubbles are easily seen. Saline flows from an intravenous (IV) bag through the clear IV tubing and the sensor to the patient. This flushes blood out of the tip of the indwelling catheter to prevent clotting. A lever can open or close the flush valve. The silicon chip has a silicon diaphragm with a four-resistor Wheatstone bridge diffused into it. Its electrical connections are protected from the saline by a compliant silicone elastomer gel, which also provides electrical isolation. This prevents electric shock from the sensor to the patient and prevents destructive currents during defibrillation from the patient to the silicon chip.
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 2.5 Mercury-in-rubber strain-gage plethysmography (a) Four-lead gage applied to human calf. (b) Bridge output for venous-occlusion plethysmography. (c) Bridge output for arterial-pulse plethysmography. [Part (a) is based on D. E. Hokanson, D. S. Sumner, and D. E. Strandness, Jr., "An electrically calibrated plethysmograph for direct measurement of limb blood flow." 1975, BME-22, 25-29; used with permission of IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 1975, New York.]
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

a c c b c d (a) d (b) d

a b a

c b d (c) e

Figure 2.6 Inductive displacement sensors (a) Self-inductance. (b) Mutual inductance. (c) Differential transformer.

From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 2.7 (a) As x moves through the null position, the phase changes 180 , while the magnitude of vo is proportional to the magnitude of x. (b) An ordinary rectifier-demodulator cannot distinguish between (a) and (b), so a phase-sensitive demodulator is required.

From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 3.16 Functional operation of a phase-sensitive demodulator (a) Switching function. (b) Switch. (c), (e), (g), (i) Several input voltages. (d), (f), (h), (j) Corresponding output voltages.

From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 2.8 Capacitance sensor for measuring dynamic displacement changes

From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

x Crystal

Cable

e Amplifier

Figure 2.9 (a) Equivalent circuit of piezoelectric sensor, where Rs = sensor leakage resistance, Cs = sensor capacitance, Cc = cable capacitance, Ca = amplifier input capacitance, Ra = amplifier input resistance, and q = charge generator. (b) Modified equivalent circuit with current generator replacing charge generator. (From Measurement Systems: Application and Design, by E. O. Doebelin. Copyright 1990 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Co.)

Charge generator q = Kx (a)

Rs

Cs

Cc

Ca

Amplifier + iAmplifier = 0 uo -

is Charge generator is = Kdx/dt iC

C

i a= 0

iR
R

+ uo
-

R = Ra Rs /(Ra+ Rs ) Ra C = Cs + Cc + Ca
(b)

From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

R is C dqs/ dt = is = K dx/dt -

uo
isC isR +

FET

Piezo-electric sensor

Figure E3.2 The charge amplifier transfers charge generated from a piezo-electric sensor to the op-amp feedback capacitor C.

From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 2.10 Sensor response to a step displacement (From Measurement Systems: Application and Design, by E. O. Doebelin. Copyright 1990 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Co.)
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Output voltage Input force Lm Cm Rm Usable range

fc

Mechanical resonance

Cs

Rt

Frequency

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.11 (a) High-frequency circuit model for piezoelectric senor. Rs is the sensor leakage resistance and Cs the capacitance. Lm, Cm, and Rm represent the mechanical system. (b) Piezoelectric sensor frequency response. (From Transducers for Biomedical Measurements: Application and Design, by R. S. C. Cobbold. Copyright 1974, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 2.12 Thermocouple circuits (a) Peltier emf. (b) Law of homogeneous circuits. (c) Law of intermediate metals. (d) Law of intermediate temperatures.
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Offset V Ri

Rf

+V

Vo +

LT 1025

Thermocouple

The hot junction is at the thermocouple. The LT1025 electronic cold junction compensates for ambient temperature changes. The noninverting amplifier provides a high input impedance and high gain.
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

1000 100

Resistance ratio, R/R25 C

10

B
1 100

A
0.1 10 0.01

C
Air

Water

0.001 - 50 0 50 100 150 200

1.0

0.1

0.10

1.0

10.0

100.0

Temperature, C (a) (b)

Current, mA

Figure 2.13 (a) Typical thermistor zero-power resistance ratio-temperature characteristics for various materials. (b) Thermistor voltage-versus-current characteristic for a thermistor in air and water. The diagonal lines with a positive slope give linear resistance values and show the degree of thermistor linearity at low cerrents. The intersection of the thermistor curves and the diagonal lines with the negative slope give the device power dissipation. Point A is the maximal current value for no appreciable self-heat. Point B is the peak voltage. Point C is the maximal safe continuous current in air. [Part (b) is from Thermistor Manual, EMC-6, 1974, Fenwal Electronics, Framinham, MA; used by permission.]
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Offset +V

Rf

V Thermistor

Vo +

If the temperature increases, the thermistor resistance decreases, yielding more current that flows through Rf, thus Vo increases.

From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

100% Spectral radient emittance, W-cm-2mm-1

m= 9.66 mm
0.00312 0.003 80

60 0.002 40 0.001 20 % Total power

Figure 2.14 (a) Spectral radiant emittance versus wavelength for a blackbody at 300 K on the left vertical axis; percentage of total energy on the right vertical axis. (b) Spectral transmission for a number of optical materials. (c) Spectral sensitivity of photon and thermal detectors. [Part (a) is from Transducers for Biomedical Measurements: Principles and Applications, by R. S. C. Cobbold. Copyright 1974, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Parts (b) and (c) are from Measurement Systems: Application and Design, by E. O. Doebelin. Copyright 1990 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Co.]

T = 300 K
5 10 Wavelength, mm 100 Fused silica Sapphire 15 20 25

(a)

Arsenic trisulfide

50

Thallium bromide iodine

10 0 (b)

1 Wavelength, mm All thermal detectors

10

100

100 60

Indium antimonide (InSb) (photovoltaic) Lead sulfide (PbS)

20 0 (c)

1 2 3 4 5 Wavelength, mm

From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 2.15 Stationary chopped-beam radiation thermometer (From Transducers for Biomedical Measurements: Principles and Applications, by R. S. C. Cobbold. Copyright 1974, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and sons. Inc.)
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Shutter Ear IR

Ambient sensor Ta Tb Amp. Sensor MUX A/D Micro processor

Waveguide

Window

Shutter switch

Digital display

The infrared thermometer opens a shutter to expose the sensor to radiation from the tympanic membrane.
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 2.16 Details of the fiber/sensor arrangement for the GaAs semiconductor temperature probe.
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 2.17 (a) General block diagram of an optical instrument. (b) Highest efficiency is obtained by using an intense lamp, lenses to gather and focus the light on the sample in the cuvette, and a sensitive detector. (c) Solid-state lamps and detectors may simplify the system.

From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 2.18 Spectral characteristics of sources, filters, detectors, and combinations thereof (a) Light sources, Tungsten (W) at 3000 K has a broad spectral output. At 2000 K, output is lower at all wavelengths and peak output shifts to longer wavelengths. Light-emitting diodes yield a narrow spectral output with GaAs in the infrared, GaP in the red, and GaAsP in the green. Monochromatic outputs from common lasers are shown by dashed lines: Ar, 515 nm; HeNe, 633 nm; ruby, 693 nm; Nd, 1064 nm; CO2 (notshown), 10600 nm. (b) Filters. A Corning 5-65 glass filter passes a blue wavelength band. A Kodak 87 gelatin filter passes infrared and blocks visible wavelengths. Germanium lenses pass long wavelengths that cannot be passed by glass. Hemoglobin Hb and oxyhemoglobin HbO pass equally at 805 nm and have maximal difference at 660 nm. (c) Detectors. The S4 response is a typical phototube response. The eye has a relatively narrow response, with colors indicated by VBGYOR. CdS plus a filter has a response that closely matches that of the eye. Si p-n junctions are widely used. PbS is a sensitive infrared detector. InSb is useful in far infrared. Note: These are only relative responses. Peak responses of different detectors differ by 107. (d) Combination. Indicated curves from (a), (b), and (c) are multiplied at each wavelength to yield (d), which shows how well source, filter, and detector are matched. (e) Photon energy: If it is less than 1 eV, it is too weak to cause current flow in Si p-n junctions.
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 2.19 Forward characteristics for p-n junctions. Ordinary silicon diodes have a band gap of 1.1 eV and are inefficient radiators in the near-infrared. GaAs has a band gap of 1.44 eV and radiates at 900 nm. GaP has a band gap of 2.26 eV and radiates at 700 nm.
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Coating Air n = 1.0

n2

1 3

ic

Fiber

4
n1

Figure 2.20 Fiber optics. The solid line shows refraction of rays that escape through the wall of the fiber. The dashed line shows total internal reflection within a fiber.

From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 2.21 Photomultiplier An incoming photon strikes the photocathode and liberates an electron. This electron is accelerated toward the first dynode, which is 100 V more positive than the cathode. The impact liberates several electrons by secondary emission. They are accelerated toward the second dynode, which is 100 V more positive than the first dynode, This electron multiplication continues until it reaches the anode, where currents of about 1 mA flow through RL.
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Figure 2.22 Voltage-current characteristics of irradiated silicon p-n junction. For 0 irradiance, both forward and reverse characteristics are normal. For 1 mW/cm2, open-circuit voltage is 600 mV and short-circuit current is 8 mA.
From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Rf

Photodiode + Vo

The photodiode yields a reverse current i proportional to light input. i must flow through Rf. Thus the op amp output Vo = iRf

From J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.