Genetics

Study of Genes 03 / 05/2012

On completion of this module you must

Define Bacterial Genetics Understand terms used in Bacterial

Genetics Describe the structure of DNA Describe Gene Expression in Bacteria Describe transcription in Bacteria Describe Translation in Bacteria ( Outline Protein synthesis steps

On completion of this module you must

Understand Mutations

Describe the bacterial Genetic Transfer:

Conjugation Transformation Transduction

What is Genetics?
The manipulation of DNA to study cellular
and organismal function

DNA encodes all of the information to

make the cell and the complete organism

Introduction
Single Circular DNA Material DNA of the smallest free-living organism
has a molecular weight of 5 x 108 Bacteria are haploid The DNA of human cells contain about 3 x 109 base pairs and can code about 1000 000 proteins

Introduction
DNA consists of 2 strands wrapped
around each other I a double helix

Each strand consists of a chain of

nucleotides held together by phosphates joining their deoxyribose sugar

Introduction
Because the phosphate joins the third
carbon of one sugar to the fifth carbon

of the next sugar, the DNA has a

directionality, or polarity, and have a

distinct 5` phosphate and 3` hydroxyl

end

Structure of DNA
Strands(chains):Deoxyribonucleotides
A base A sugar A phosphate group

DNA Bases
Adenine (A)
Cytosine( C) Thymine (T) Guanine

DNA Bases
Bases with two rings:

A and G (PURINES
Bases with one ring:

T and C ( PYRIMIDINES)

DNA Bases
A third pyrimidine, uracil (U), replaces
thymine in RNA

All four DNA bases are attached to the

five-carbon sugar deoxyribose

The sugar is identical to ribose , which is

found in RNA except it does not have an oxygen attached to the second carbon

The DNA chain

Phosphodiester bonds join
deoxynucleotide link in the DNA chain

Introduction
DNA is synthesized from the precusor
deoxynucleoside triphosphates by DNA

polymerase

The DNA in a bacterium that carries

most of the genes is called the bacterial
chromosome

Mutations
A mutation is a change in the base
sequence of DNA that usually results in

insertion of a different amino acid into

a protein and the appearance of an

altred phenotype

Mutations
A mutation is any heritable change in the
sequence of DNA of an organism.

The organism with a mutation is called a

mutant, and that organism's mutant
phenotype includes all the characteristics that are different from the wild-type, or normal organism

Base substitution
A mutation in which one type of base
pair in DNA ( e.g. an AT pair) is changed
into a different base pair ( e.g. GC pair )

Missense mutations
A base pair change mutation in a region
of DNA encoding a polypeptide that changes an amino acid in the polypeptide

This occurs when a base substitution

results in a codon that simply causes a different amino acid to be inserted

Nonsense codons
Usually the codons UAG, UGA and UAA.
These codons do not stipulate an amino acid in most types of organisms but, rather, trigger the termination of tranlation

Nonsense mutations
In a region of DNA encoding a protein, a
base pair change mutation that causes one of the nonsense codons to be encountered in frame when mRNa is translated

Frame shift mutation

Any mutation that adds or removes one
or more ( but not a multiple ) base pairs from DNA , whether or not it occurs in the coding region for a protein

Causes of Mutations
Chemical Radiation
Viruses

Chemical Mutations
Some chemicals such as 5-bromouracil,
are base analogues- the resemble normal bases

Bromine has an atomic radius similar to

that of methyl- group

Therefore 5-bromouracil can be iserted in

place of thymine

Chemical Mutations
Some chemicals, such as benzpyrene,
found in tobacco smoke, bind to the existing DNA bases and cause frame mutations

These chemicals are often carcinogenic

Transfer of DNA within bacterial cell

Transposon:

A DNA sequence that can move from one

place in DNA to a different place with the
help of transposase enzymes

Transfer of DNA within bacterial cell

This can be done by a promiscous
plasmids:

This is a self-transfmissible plasmid

that can transfer itself into many types of bacteria, some of which are only distantly related to each other

Transfer of DNA within bacterial cell

Programmed Rearrangements:

These may be silent genes that encode

variants of the antigens and the insertion of a new gene into the active site in a sequential, repeated programmed manner.

These are not induced by an immune

response but have the effect of allowing organisms to evade it

Conjugation
The transfer of DNA from one bacterial
cell to another by the transfer functions of a self-transmissible DNA element such

as a plasmid

Conjugation
Self-transmissible plasmids can
transfer themselves to other bacterila

cells

Mobilizable plasmids cannot transfer

themselves but can be transferred by
certain self-transmissible plasmids

Conjugation
The process by which self-transmissible
plasmids promote their own transfer or the transfer of other plasmids into cells is called conjugation

The original cell that contained the

plasmid is the donor, and the cell into which the plasmid has been tranferred are called transconjugants

Conjugation
Bacterial strains with a self-transmissible
plasmid inserted into their chromosome are called Hfr strains

Conjugation
Self-transmissible plasmids have several transacting Tra genes that encode products required

for transfer, as well as a cis-acting oriT site at

which plasmid transfer originates

Transformation
Bacteria that are capable of taking up
DNA are said to be competent

Some types of bacteria can naturally take

up DNA during part of their life cycle

In transformation, DNA is taken directly

by cells

Transformation
Most types of naturally transformable
usually become competent only during

part of their cellular growth, when they

have reached high densities and are

entering the stationary phase

Transformation
Some types of bacteria, including
Haemophilus infleunzae and Neisseria
gonorrhoea, will take up DNA of only
the same species

Transduction
A process in which DNA other than
phage DNA is introduced into the
bacterium is introduced into bacterium

by infection by a phage containing DNA

Processes leading to protein synthesis

Transcription:

Is the synthesis of RNA on a DNA

template

This process is probably fairly similar in

all organisms, but it is best understood in bacteria

RNA is a polymer made up of a chain of

ribonucleotides

Processes leading to protein synthesis

The bases of the nucleotides:
Adenine, cytosine, uracil, and guanine

The enzyme responsible for making RNA

is called RNA polymerase

Translation
This is the process by which the region of
mRNA encodes a protein