1

OBJECTIVES
• Explain the significance of maintaining a
constant internal environment
• Explain control of body temperature in
animal
• Discuss some of the adaptations of plants
to environment

2
 HOMEOSTASIS
(homeo=sameness;-stasis=standing still)

• The condition in which the body’s internal

environment remains relatively constant,
within physiological limits

• Homeostasis is a dynamic condition—in

response to changing condition, the body’s
equilibrium point can change over a narrow
range that is compatible with maintaining life
3
Important aspect of homeostasis is to maintaining the volume
and composition of body fluids

• Intracellular fluids
– the fluid within cells
• Extracellular fluids
– the fluid outside body cells
• Interstitial fluid
– the extracellular fluids that fills the narrow spaces between cells
of tissues
• Plasma
– extracellular fluids within blood vessels

4
Process to maintaining the dynamic equilibrium in the body include
the :
• Excretion
• Osmotic balance

Important factors to maintain dynamic equilibrium:

• Substances dissolved in water:
– Oxygen and carbon dioxide
– Nutrients (proteins, fatty acids, glucose level)
– Ions
• pH
• Temperature
• Osmotic pressure

5
The waste products:
• Carbon dioxide
• Bile pigments (biliverdin and bilirubin)
• Water from the cell respiration
• Urea

6
 Physiological control
• Body can regulate its internal environment through the feedback
systems

• Feedback system
– a cycle of events in which the status of body condition is continually
monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, re-evaluated and so on.

• Each monitored variable, such as body temperature, blood pressure,

blood glucose level is termed a controlled condition

• Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is called a stimulus

7
3 basic components make up a feedback system

• Receptor
• body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends
input in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals to a control center.

• Control centre
• set the range of values within which a controlled condition should be
maintained, evaluates the input it receives from receptors and generates
output commands when they are needed.
• Output from the control center can occur in several forms:
• nerve impulses,
• hormones , or
• other chemical signals

8
1. Effector
• body structure that receives output from the control
centre and produces a response or effect that changes
the controlled condition.

As a control system operates, the effector

response feed back and influences the magnitude
of the stimulus by either depressing it (negative
feedback) or enhancing it (positive feedback)
9
Negative feedback
• Homeostatic mechanism that stops or reduces the
intensity of the original stimulus and consequently
causes a change in a variable that is opposite in direction
to the initial change (The output is used to reduce input)

Positive feedback
• a feedback mechanism in which the response enhances
the original stimulus (The output is used to enhance the
input)

Example : The secretion of oxytocin during

childbirth

10
 Homeostatic regulation
i. Every changes in the physical or chemical factors
of the internal environment – detected by receptor
ii. Receptor send information about the changes to a
control system
iii. Action signals are transmitted through nerve
impulses or hormone to the target organ
– Trigger the correction mechanism to return the
physical or chemical factors to normal condition

11
i. Any increase in the value of a physical or
chemical factor in the internal environment will
trigger a correction mechanism to reduce that
value

• Conversely, a reduction in the value of the

physical or chemical factor will trigger a
mechanism to increase the amount of that factor.

12
• If the control centre or correction
mechanism is disrupted, the change
occurring in the factor cannot be reversed
– The value of the factor continuing to rise or fall
– This is called positive feedback

13
 Factor value increase accelerated

Positive Transmission
feedback of nerve
impulse or
Receptor Control centre Effector Correction
secretion of mechanism
hormone
increase Negative feedback decrease

Normal condition Normal

condition
restored
decrease Transmission
of nerve or Negative feedback increase

Receptor Control centre Effector Correction

secretion of mechanism
hormone
Positive feedback

Factor value decrease accelerated

14
Schematic representation of homeostatic process
Negative feedback in
control of blood
glucose level

15
 Control of blood sugar level
• Regulated by the activities of several organs,
particularly the pancreas and liver
• Any changes in blood sugar level
– Detected by pancreas

• Endocrine gland
– Secrete insulin and glucagon

Beta cells of the islets Alpha cells of the islets of

of Langerhans Langerhans
16
 Beta cell of the Liver stimulated to convert
islets of
ii. Glucose to CO2 + H2O Blood sugar
Langerhans to
secrete insulin iii. Glucose to glycogen level falls

iv. Glucose to fat

Blood sugar Negative feedback decrease
level rises

Normal sugar level Normal sugar level

Blood sugar
level falls
Negative feedback increase
Liver stimulated to convert
Alpha cells of ii. Glycogen to glucose Blood sugar
the islets of level rises
Langerhans iii. Reduce glucose
stimulated to oxidation
secrete
glucagon

17
Schematic representation of blood sugar level regulation
Negative feedback in
control of body
temperature

18
An organism exchanges heat with its environment by

four physical processes

• Conduction
– The direct transfer of thermal motion (heat) between molecules of the
environment and a body surface

• Convection
– The transfer of heat by the movement of air or liquid past a body surface

• Radiation
– The emission of electromagnetic waves produced by all objects warmer than the
absolute zero

• Evaporation
– The loss of heat from a liquid’s surface that is losing some molecule as gas

19
Thermoreceptor Body temperature
in skin Afferent nerve Afferent nerve
Hypothalamus, the
thermoregulatory centre in
brain
Efferent nerve

Blood Erector Sweat Skeletal Adrenal Thyroid

capilaries muscles gland muscles gland gland

Vasodilation or Erection or Sweating or Shivering or Adrenaline Thyroxine

vasocontraction no erection no sweating no shivering level increases level
or decreases increases or
decreases

Temperature regulation through physical action Temperature regulation

through metabolic action
20
Body temperature regulation in humans and other mammals
 Correction mechanism
•Vasodilation
Thermoregulatory
•Sweating
centre Efferent
Afferent nerve
(hypothalamus) in •Non-erection of hair

k
nerve

Ne dbac
iv e
brain

t
•Drop in metabolic rate

a
fee
g
Temperature
rises Temperature
falls
Normal body Normal body
temperature temperature
Temperature
falls Thermoregulatory Correction mechanism
Efferent
centre •Vasocontriction Temperature
nerve rises
Afferent (hypothalamus) in

ba e
e d ti v
nerve •No sweating

ck
fe ega
brain

N
•Hair erection

•Increase in metabolic
rate

21
Schematic representation of body temperature regulation in mammals
22
LIVER

23
 Liver structure
• Largest visceral organ in
the body
• Metabolic centre in the
body
• Processed and stored food
• Received blood
– Hepatic artery
• Oxygenated blood from the
dorsal aorta
– Hepatic portal vein
• Nutrient rich blood from
small intestine
• Sent blood to heart
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– Hepatic vein
• Liver cell – hepatocyte
• Liver is made up of
many cylindrical lobes
• Interlobular blood
vessel
– Branches of the hepatic
artery and hepatic
artery and hepatic
portal vein
– Connect to periphery
of each lobes

25
• Canalikuli
– Bile duct branches into
a network of fine
vessels
– Pass between cells of
lobes
• Sinusoid
– Capillaries which form
from hepatic arteriole
and hepatic portal
venule
– Flow to central vein

26
• Kupffer cell
– Specialized ameboid
cell
– Attach to the inner wall
of sinusoid
– Phagocytosing old red
blood cells and
patogens
• Bile duct
– Carry bile to gall
bladder

27
 Functions of liver

1. Carbohydrate metabolism
• Regulates blood sugar level
– Glycogenesis
• Convert excess sugar to glycogen
– Glycogenolysis
• Broken down the glycogen
– Cori cycle
• Convert lactate into glucose
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1. Lipid metabolism
– Breaks down fat
– Transport of lipid
• Produces globulin to transport fat
• Stored in the form of adipose tissues

29
1. Protein metabolism
• Regulates protein and amino acid
– Deamination
• Produced non-nitrogenous and nitrogenous parts
• Non-nitrogenous part - convert into glucose in liver and stored as glycogen or broken down to release heat
• Nitrogenous part – enter ornithine cycle
– Ornithine cycle
• To convert ammonia (toxic) into urea (less toxic)

30
31
1. Processing drugs and hormones
• the liver can detoxify substances such as alcohol or excrete drugs
such as penicillin, erythromycin and sulfonamides into bile
3. Excretion of bilirubin
• bilirubin derived from the heme of aged red blood cells, is
absorbed by the liver from the blood and secreted into bile
5. Synthesis of bile salts
• bile salts are used in the small intestine for the emulsification and
absorption of lipids, cholesterol, phospholipids and lipoproteins
7. Storage
• in addition to glycogen, the liver is a prime storage site for
certain vitamins (A, cobalamin, D, E and K) and minerals (iron
and copper) which are released from the liver when needed
elsewhere in the body

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1. Phagocytosis
• Kupffer’s cells phagocytize aged red blood cells
and white blood cells and some bacteria
3. Activation of vitamin D
• the skin, liver and kidneys participate in
synthesizing the active form of vitamin D

33
Role of the liver in (the
control) blood glucose
level, fatty acids and
protein
34
 Carbohydrate Metabolism

• Regulation of blood sugar level

35
 Carbohydrate Metabolism

Amino acid Glycerol, fatty acid

Glycogen
Gluconeogenesis (Liver)
glycogenolysis

glycogenesis
digestion insulin
Carbohydrate Blood glucose Glucose-6-phosphate Glucose-1-phosphate
(Tissue and liver)

Glycogen
(Muscle)

Pyruvate

anaerobic aerobic

Lactate + energy CO2 + H2O + energy

36
• Cori Cycle shows glycogen and lactate
movement between the liver and muscle

37
 Fats (lipid) metabolism
• Fats in the liver can be modified for
respiration and can be stored in the body
cells

• Hepatocytes synthesize the cholesterol

when the level is decreased. It also can
excreted cholesterol into bile when the level
of the cholesterol is increased

38
 Protein Metabolism
• Protein being recycled are first broken down into amino
acids.
• Hepatocytes convert amino acids to fatty acid, ketone
bodies, glucose or oxidize them to carbon dioxide and
water
• There are two ways of protein metabolism
– Deamination
• a conversion consists of removing the amino group from the amino
acids and converting it to ammonia
– Transamination
• the transfer of an amino group from an amino acid to pyruvic acid or to
an acid in the Krebs cycle-can synthesized nonessential amino acids
• Ornithine Cycle shows the formation of urea
39
 Metabolism of excess amino acid
Excess amino acid
deamination

Keto acid + NH3 Production of organic base

CO2
Krebs Glucose Ornithine Nucleotide synthesis
cycle cycle

Glycogen Fats
H2O + CO2 urea
Nucleic acid synthesis

40
 Ornithine cycle (urea cycle)
H2O
fumarate arginine

urea

arginosuccinate ornithine

AMP + PPi Carbamoyl phosphate

2 ADP + Pi

ATP 2 ATP
Pi
NH3 citruline NH3 + CO2 + H2O
aspartate

41
Deamination of amino acid
42
That’s all for today

43
Kidney

44
 Objectives
• Kidney structure and nephron
• Urine formation involving ultrafiltration and
reabsorption
• Urine concentration by counter current
multiplier mechanism
• Water regulation by ADH
• Osmoregulation of mineral ions by aldosterone
• pH regulation of the tissue fluid
45
Introduction
• Kidney
– main function in homeostasis
– urine formatian ; eliminate the nitrogen by
products of protein metabolism and maintain
water balance

46
Urinary system
• Kidney
– pair of bean-shaped organ (about 10 cm long in human), located in
the region of the lower back
• Ureter
– urine exits the kidney through this duct

47
• Urinary bladder
– ureter of both kidneys carries the urine to a urinary bladder

• Urethra
– during urination, urine leaves the body through this and sphincter muscles near
the junction of the uretra and the bladder control urination

48
Structure of kidney
and
nephron

49
 Structure of kidney
• renal pelvis
– within the kidney , the mouth
of the ureter flares open to
form a funnel-like
structure.and has cup-shaped
extensions that receive urine
from the renal tissue

– This tissue is divided into :-

• renal cortex
– outer region
• renal medulla
– inner region
• nephron
– microscopic excretory tubules
– Each kidney composed of
roughly 1 million nephrons

50
 Structure of nephron
• Bowman’s capsule
– a hollow, cup shaped ( diameter ∼ 200
µm) in the cortex of the kidney.

• Glomerulus
– the cupped wall region and blood
vessel
– blood –filtering unit

• Proximal convoluted tubule

– close to the capsule , highly coiled and
diameter ∼60µm
– Located in the cortex of the kidney.

• Loop of Henle
– hair-pin shaped and have descending
limb & ascending limb
– Located in the medulla of the kidney.
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• Distal convoluted tubule
– located in the cortex of the
kidney.

• Collecting duct
– end of kidney and located
in the medulla of the kidney
– Several nephrons feed into
the same collecting duct
– The collecting ducts all
eventually drain into the
pelvis of the kidney, from
where the urine flows into
the ureter.

52
Nephron and blood
circulation

53
 Nephron and blood circulation
• Renal artery
– blood enters the kidney by
the renal artery which
branches into afferent
arteriole.
• Afferent arteriole
– brings blood towards each
Bowman’s capsule,
dividing to form a network
of capillaries called
glomerulus in the hollow of
the capsule.
• Efferent arteriole
– blood leaves the Bowman’s
capsule (capillaries) in an
efferent arteriole, which is
narrower than the afferent
arteriole

54
• The efferent arteriole
divided to form second set
of capillaries which
surround the proximal and
distal convoluted tubules
and the loops of Henle in
the medulla

• The capillaries of the vasa

recta (peritubular
capillaries) run parallel to
the loops of Henle and the
collecting duct in the
medulla.

• Blood leaves the kidney

through the renal vein
Renal artery  afferent arteriole  glomerulus efferent arteriole vasa recta  renal
55 vein
Urine Formation

56
 Urine Formation
1) Ultrafiltration in
Bowman’s capsule

• Ultrafiltration of the blood

– it filters out molecules which
are much smaller than red
blood cell and plasma
proteins
– occurs as blood pressure
forces water ,urea, salts, and
other small solutes from the
blood in the glomerulus into
the lumen of Bowman’s
capsule.

57
Factors contribute to ultrafiltration process:-

iii. The hydrostatic blood pressure in the glomerulus is higher than in

other capillaries.
• due to the high resistance to outflow presented by the efferent arteriole, which is
smaller in diameter than the afferent arteriole

v. Large amount of glomerulus filtrate

• large surface area for filtration provided by the highly coiled glomerulus
capillaries

58
i. High permeability of the glomerulus
• The wall of Bowman’s capsule in contact with capillaries consists of
specialized epithelial cell called podocytes. These cells have numerous
cytoplasmic extension called foot processes that cover most of the
capillaries.
• Foot processes of adjacent podocytes are separated by narrow gaps called
filtration slits.

59
• The perforated walls of the
capillaries and the podocytes form
a filtration membrane that permits
fluid and small solutes dissolved in

the plasma, such as glucose, amino

acids, sodium, potassium,chloride,
bicarbonate, other salts, and urea,
topass through and become part of
the filtrate.

• This filtrate membrane holds back

blood cells, platelets, and most of
the plasma protein.
60
• Reabsorption (proximal
convoluted tubule, loop of
Henle, distal convoluted
tubule)

• As the glomerular filtrates flow

through the nephron, various
substances move out of it. Then
they cross the cells that make up
the nephron’s wall into the blood
in the capillaries running alongside
the nephron.

• Most reabsorption takes places as

the fluid flows through the
proximal convoluted tubule.

61
• Capillaries reabsorb useful
molecules such as glucose,
amino acids, vitamins, most of
the water, sodium and
chloride ions.
• The kidney tubules are being
adapted to increase the
reabsorption efficiency by the
following factors.

a. The proximal and distal

tubule are long and winding.
Therefore both the surface
area , and the time available
for reabsorption are increased.

a. The tubules have walls which

are only one cell thick.
Diffusion is efficient only
over very small distances.

62
a. The cells of the proximal and distal convulated tubules have a brush border of
microvilli which increase the surface area in contact with the fluid, and therefore
increase the rate at which substances can be absorbed from it.

c. The bases of the proximal tubule cells are irregular in shape where they are adjacent
to a blood capillary and there are numerous intercellular spaces. The cells are
ideally adapted for the diffusion of absorbed substances into the capillary network
that surround the tubule.

They also contain numerous mitochondria which are the sites of aerobic respiration. The energy is required for active uptake when substances are moved across cells such as sodium ions and glucose.

63
64
65
66
67
Urine concentration by counter
current multiplier mechanism

68
Definition:
• ‘countercurrent’
– fluids past each other in
opposite directions.
– fluid flow down
(descending limb) and up
(ascending limb) of the
loop.
• ‘multiplier’
– fluid flow down the
descending limb, high
concentration of NaCl and
most hypertonic round the
hairpin
– fluid flow up the ascending
limb, less concentrated of
NaCl; hypotonic

69
Urine concentration located in loop of Henle.

• The function of the loop

of Henle
– to conserve water.
– the longer the loop of Henle
, the more concentrated the
urine that can be produced.
– loop of Henle create a water
potential gradient between
the renal filtrate and the
peritubular (medullary)
fluid which bathes the loop;
create a very high
concentration of salts in the
tissue fluid in the medulla
of the kidney.

70
Urine concentration by counter current multiplier mechanism

This mechanism based of:-

• The descending limb

• thin walls.
• high permeable to water and
permeable to most
ions/solutes.
• its function is to allow
substances to diffuse
easily through its wall and
water would follow
by osmosis.

71
i. The ascending limb

• the thin ascending limb

o this is the lower half of the
ascending limb and has
o thin wall like the descending
limb.
o impermeable to water but
permeable to ions

• the thick ascending limb

o this is the upper half of the
ascending limb and has thick
walls.
o impermeable to water but
permeable to ions.
o actively reabsorb sodium and
chloride from the tubule to
72
blood
Urine concentration by counter current multiplier mechanism

• There is a gradient of
NaCl across the medulla

• The filtrate which enters

the loop of Henle is
isotonic with the
peritubular fluid

• Only the thin part of the

descending limb is freely
permeable to water.
73
• The sodium and chloride ions
are actively pumped out of the
thick ascending limbs , into
the tissue fluid outside.

• As the two limb are so close to

one another, this produce a
high concentration of sodium
and chloride ions around the
descending limb.

74
• When the fluid flows down the
descending limb, it is surrounded by
tissue fluid with a high
concentration of ions and therefore
a low water potential.

• This causes water in the descending

limb drawn out by osmosis.

• The water moves straight into the

capillaries (vasa recta) surrounding
the loop of Henle.

• At the same time, sodium and

chloride ions diffuse into the fluid in
the tubule, down their concentration
gradient.

75
• The effect is cumulative and
therefore the filtrate at the bottom of
the descending limb and as it begins
to turn the hairpin, it has lost a lot of
water and gained a lot of sodium
and chloride ions ( more
concentrated than at either end).

• As the fluid flows up the ascending

limb, it continues to lose sodium
and chloride ions, and therefore
become less concentrated.

• The filtrate entering the distal tubule

is hypotonic to the peritubular
fluid.

76
• Function of complex of blood capillaries runs
alongside the loop of Henle:

– supply oxygen and nutrients so that cells in the walls of

the loop can produce the large amount of ATP for
active transport.

– take away much of the salt and water from the tissue
fluid in the medulla, helping to maintain the gradients
built up by the loop.

77
 How does this mechanism help to
conserve water?
• The final part of each nephron, the collecting duct,
also passes through the medulla of the kidney.

• As the fluid flow through the collecting ducts,

water can be drawn out of them, by osmosis, into
the concentrated tissue fluid in the medulla.

• The more concentrated the tissue fluid, the more

water can be drawn out, and the more concentrated
the urine can be.

78
Water regulation by ADH

79
 Water regulation by ADH
Concepts

• The kidney play central role in the regulation of

the water content of the body or osmoregulation.

• The water content of the blood is monitored by

osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus and these
cells produce antidiuretic hormone, ADH.

80
 Summarize
Source Target tissue Actions Factors that
Stimulate
Release

Produced in Distal Increases Low fluid intake

hypothalamus; convoluted permeability of decreases blood
released by tubule and the collecting volume and
posterior collecting ducts ducts to water, increases
pituitary gland increasing osmotic pressure
reabsorption and of blood;
decreasing water receptors in
excretion hypothalamus
stimulate
posterior
pituitary

81
 Water regulation by ADH
Low intake of water

• Water content of the blood is lower

than normal, the body begins to
dehydrate, causing the blood volume
to decrease.

• The concentration of salts dissolved

in the blood becomes greater

• Osmotic pressure increase.

• Osmoreceptor in hypothalamus are

sensitive to this osmotic change and
stimulate the posterior lobe of the
pituitary to release more ADH

• ADH makes the collecting duct wall

more permeable to water
82
• Osmotic uptake of water is
allowed (greater water
reabsorption)

• Small volumes of
concentrated urine are
produced

• This water retention helps

to stop the solute
concentration of the blood
from becoming too high

83
High intake of water

• Water content of the blood is higher than normal, the body fluids begin to
dilute, causing the blood volume to increase.
• Concentration of salts dissolved in the blood becomes less
• Osmotic pressure decrease.
• Osmoreceptor in hypothalamus are sensitive to this osmotic change and
stimulate the posterior lobe of the pituitary to release less ADH

• ADH makes the collecting duct wall less permeable to water

• Less osmotic uptake of water is allowed (less water reabsorption)

• Large volumes of diluted urine are produced

• This water loss reduces the solute concentration of the blood

84
Osmoregulation of mineral ions
by aldosterone

85
 Osmoregulation of mineral ions by aldosterone
• The maintenance of the
plasma sodium level is
controlled by aldosterone.

• Secreted by the cortex

region of the adrenal
gland.

• Aldosterone stimulates the

distal tubule to increase
sodium reabsorption and
thereby maintains the
balance of salt and water in
the body fluids. 86
 Osmoregulation of mineral ions by aldosterone
When blood sodium level decrease

• A decrease in blood sodium leads

to a decrease in blood volume
because less water enters the blood
by osmosis.

• Reduces blood pressure.

• This decrease in pressure and

volume stimulates a group of
secretory cells, the juxtaglomerular
complex, situated between the
distal convoluted tubule and the
afferent arteriole, to release an
enzyme called renin.

87
• Renin passes into the blood where
it acts on its substrate, a protein
called angiotensinogen,
converting it to angiotensin.

• The arrival of angiotensin at the

adrenal glands causes aldosterone
to be secreted into the blood.

• Therefore, increase the rate of

reabsorption of sodium ions from
the distal convoluted tubules.

• Thus, fewer sodium ions are lost

in the urine, and more are retained
in the blood.

• Thus causes more water to enter

the blood by osmosis, raising its
volume and hence its pressure. 88
pH regulation
of
the tissue fluid

89
 pH regulation of the tissue fluid
• pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen
ions.

• The more hydrogen ions,

– lower the pH
– blood become more acidic

• Nephron regulates the pH of the blood, maintaining

it at pH 7.4.

• One factor which tends to increase acidity is

production of carbon dioxide during cell respiration.
90
• Carbon dioxide reacts with water to produce carbonic
acid:

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

• Carbonic acid dissociates to produce hydrogen ions

and hydrogencarbonate ions:

H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

91
 pH regulation of the tissue fluid
• The kidney help to regulate pH by altering the rate at which they excrete
hydrogen ions.

• Hydrogen ions are continually secreted into the fluid as it passes along the
nephron.

• The rate at which they are secreted depends on the pH of the blood.

• An equivalent number of hydrogen ions must therefore be excreted in urine to

maintain acid-base balance.

• In addition, the kidneys assist the lungs by eliminating CO2 that enters the renal
tubules during filtration or that diffuses into the tubular fluid as it travels
toward the renal pelvis.

• Hydrogen ions are secreted into the tubular fluid along the proximal convoluted tubule,
the distal convoluted tubule, and the collecting duct.

92
• If the blood fluid pH is low (acidosis - developed
when the normal plasma buffer mechanisms are
stressed),
– more hydrogen ions are secreted into the tubules or the
collecting duct from the blood.
– more hydrogen ions are lost from the body in the urine.
– Addition of that is removal of CO2, activity of buffers
in the tubular fluid and reabsorption of NaHCO3
– A fall in pH also stimulates the kidney cells to produce
the base ion ammonium (NH4+) which combines with
acids brought to the kidney and then excreted as
ammonium salts.

93
• If blood pH is high (alkalosis),
– then fewer hydrogen ions are secreted into the
nephron;
– they remain in the body rather than passed out in the
urine.
– The collecting system transports HCO3- into tubular
fluid while releasing HCl into peritubular fluid.
– The concentration of HCO3- in plasma decreases,
promoting the dissociation of H2CO3 and the release
of hydrogen ions.
– The additional H+ generated at the kidneys help return
the pH to normal levels.
94
 Water
concentration in
plant
95
 Objectives
i. The role of stomata in water loss through
transpiration

iii. Significance of transpiration

v. Plant adaptation to the habitats

– Xerophytes
– Hydrophytes
– Mesophytes
– Halophytes

96
Pengumuman Jabatan Pertanian
Bagaimana hendak mengenali penyakit Lembu Gila.

Tidak berpenyakit Berpenyakit

RCA-Biology Unit-KML
The role of stomata in
water loss through
transpiration

98
 The role of stomata in water loss through
transpiration
Significance of transpiration

• Loss of water from plants’surface is called transpiration

• Water normally leaves the plant as water vapour.

• The change from the liquid state to the vapour state

requires the addition of energy which is provided by the
sun, and it is this energy that maintains the flow of water
throughout the entire plant.

99
• Transpiration occurs from the stomata by evaporation of
water from cells and diffusion of the water vapour through
stomata, the pores found in the epidermis of leaves and
green stems.

• About 90% of the water is lost through transpiration.

• Water in the plant is in direct contact with water in soil and

with water vapour in the air around the plant.

• Water movement from higher water potential to the lower

water potential is called potential gradient.

• The gradient is maintained by solar energy and

evaporation of water from the surface of the plant
(transpiration) 100
• Water is essential for plant metabolism, but is continuously being
lost to the atmosphere through the stomata.

• Photosynthesis requires a supply of CO2 entering the stomata

from the atmosphere.

• Therefore, plants need to minimize the loss of water to the

atmosphere and the need to allow the diffusion of CO2.

• Closing the stomata can control water loss.

• However, the opening of stomata at times helps CO2 to enter and

dissolves in the water on the walls of the intercellular spaces
below the stomata, before entering the plant’s cells.

• A plant must responds both to the need to conserve water and the
requirement of CO2
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 Plant adaptation to the habitats
• Xerophytes
• Hydrophytes
• Mesophytes
• Halophytes

 The rate of transpiration depends on whether

conditions like humidity and the time of the day.

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 Xerophytes
• Plants which grow in dry habitats and subjected to
drought.
• Example : cactus
• Adaptations to reduce water loss
It has a very long, shallow, spread-out root system.
It has a swollen , succulent stems or leaves.
It has specialized leaves that may be hairy, rolled or
reduced to spikes or reduced leaf size.
It has a round shape, giving it a low surface area to
volume ratio.
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• Adaptations to reduce water loss

It has a very long, shallow, spread-out root system.

It has a swollen , succulent stems or leaves.

It has specialized leaves that may be hairy, rolled or reduced to spikes or reduced leaf size.

It has a round shape, giving it a low surface area to volume ratio.

The stomata are sunken into pits and surrounded by hairs.

It has hairs over its surface which trap moisture.

It has thick layers of epidermis and heavily waxed on the cuticle of the leaves.

It has crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) mechanism of photosynthesis; their stomata stay
closed during the heat of the day and open during the cooler, more humid night.

Some spesies survive in the seed or spore stage and germinate, grow, flower and seed in a
short time following rainfall.

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 Hydrophytes
• plant that lives either in very wet soil or
completely or partially submerged in
water
• Examples : pondweed
( Elodea sp), waterlily (Nymphaea sp).

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• Adaptation to survive in very wet condition;

 It has absence or reduction of a root systems

 It has specialized leaves (ribbonlike leaves) that may be either floating

or finely divided, with little or no cuticle

 It has a few xylem tissues

 It has many air holes/air chambers in the stem (for O2 and CO2
storage which supply oxygen to the roots and enable them to float)

Epidermis :

to absorb nutrients from the water, not for protection (absorping

nutrients and water through their leaves)

contained chlorophyll

No stoma – if there is, it will be at the upper part of a leaf

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 Mesophytes
• Plants growing under conditions in which
there is normally an adequate water supply

• The majority of angiosperm plant spesies

are mesophytes, and they faced with the
problem of water loss by evaporation from
all aerial parts

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• Adaptation to reduce water loss
Presence of cuticle
Protected stomata whose diameters can be
regulated
Variable leaf shape
Abscission (leaf fall)
Ecological distribution based upon tolerance to
dehydration
It has stoma closed when it is very hot (daytime
–afternoon)

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 Halophytes
• Plants which live in an environment where there is plenty of
water, but they have difficulty obtaining it because it is salty

• Conditions like this are found in estuaries and salt marshes

• Plants adapted to live in salty conditions

• Salinity changes according to environment

• Examples : Spartina sp(cord grass) and mangroves

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Adaptations to water conservation :

It has root cells with very low water potentials (high transpiration ability ; therefore
cell water potential are lower than habitat water potential).

It has hydatode at the side of the leaves or special salt glands at the margins to excrete
excessive salt by active transport onto the leaf surface.

It has roots submerged in salt water/ knee root – above the surface of the salty muds
(mangrove)

It has an extensive systems of rhizomes for propagation.

It has adventititous root for anchorage and uptake of water as well as ions.

It has root systems that are able to tolerate high salinities. Many spesies have
extensive roots which are able to store water when it is freely available.

It is capable of storing water in its succulent tissues.

It has respiratory roots/pneumatophores which are dotted with lenticels, (small vent-
like openings) that take in air and channel it to the parts of the root that are buried
beneath the mud (mangrove). 110
That all for this
chapter

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