OBJECTIVES :

• Student should be able to :-

Draw and identify structure and
functions of the heart.
Explain heart beat mechanism.
Explain the role of xilem and
floem in plant.
 10.1
TRANSPORT AND CONTROL
IN HUMAN

10.1.1 : THE HEART AND CONTROL

HEART STRUCTURE
MECHANISM OF HEART
BEAT
 Cardiac Cycle (heartbeat):
The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occur
when the heart beats. There are two phases of this
cycle:

• Diastole
• Systole
During the diastole phase
the atria and ventricles are
relaxed and the
atrioventricular valves are
open.

De-oxygenated blood
from the superior and
inferior vena cava flows
into the right atrium.

The open atrioventricular

valves allow blood to pass
through to the ventricles.
• The SA node triggering
the atria to contract.

• The right atrium empties

its contents into the right
ventricle.

• The tricuspid valves

prevents the blood from
flowing back into the right
atrium.
• During the systole phase
the right ventricle receives
impulses from the Purkinje
fibers and contracts.

• The atrioventricular valves

close and the semilunar
valves open.

• The de-oxygenated blood

is pumped into the
pulmonary artery
• The pulmonary artery
carries the blood to the
lungs

• There the blood picks

up oxygen and is
returned to the left
atrium of the heart by
the pulmonary veins.
HEART BEAT
• In the next diastole period,
the semilunar valves close
and the atrioventricular
valves open.

• Blood from the pulmonary

veins fills the left atrium.
•
• The SA node contracts
again triggering the atria
to contract. The left
atrium empties its contents
into the left ventricle.
• The mitral valve prevents
the oxygenated blood
from flowing back into the
left atrium.

• During the systole phase

the atrioventricular
valves close and the
semilunar valves open.

• The left ventricle receives

impulses from the
Purkinje fibers and
contracts.
• Oxygenated blood is pumped into the aorta.
The aortic valve prevents the oxygenated
blood from flowing back into the left
ventricle.
• The aorta branches out to provide
oxygenated blood to all parts of the body.
• The oxygen depleted blood is returned to
the heart via the vena cava.
HEART STRUCTURE
 Function
• Vena cava
– Carry deoxygenated blood from
the body to the right atrium
• Aorta
– Carry oxygenated blood from the
heart to other parts of the body
• Pulmonary arteries
– Carry deoxygenated blood from
the heart to the lungs
• Pulmonary veins
– Carry oxygenated blood from the
lungs to the left atrium
• Coronary arteries
– Carry oxygenated blood to the
heart muscle
• Right ventricle
– Pump deoxygenated blood to the
lungs
• Left ventricle
– Pump oxygenated blood around
the body
• Tricuspid and bicuspid valves
– Prevents backflow of blood into
atrium
• Semi-lunar valves
– Prevent the backflow of blood
into the heart, keeping the blood
flowing in one direction.
The left ventricle is thicker and
more muscular than the right
ventricle.

WHY ?
Sino atrial and artial ventricular mode
Control of heart rate
 Control of heart rate
• Individual cardiac muscle will contract and
relax in their own inherent rhythm.

• Is coordinated by electrical stimulation from

the brain.

• Heart control centre – in the medulla

oblongata.

• The symphatetic nerve stimulates an

increase in heart rate.

• The vagus nerve stimulates a decrease in

heart rate.

• The nerves ------ SA node (right artrium).

• The pacemaker (SAN)
triggers the heartbeat BUT
the rate and strength of its
beating can be modified by
2 external control centre
located in medulla
oblongata.
• Cardiac centre connected to
heart bye autonomic nerves
system
– SYMPATHETIC NERVE
– PARASYMPATHETIC
VAGUS NERVE
Heart activity and relation to nervous
and the endocrine system
 CONTROL THE HEART BEAT
• SYMPATHETIC NERVE
– Accelerates the activity of
the heart (Heart beat more
faster).
– Release noradrenaline
– They increase the rate and
strength of the heart beat and
increase the blood flow.
Their activation is usually
due to some stress
– 180 beat\min, 25-30L\min
• PARASYMPATHETIC NERVE(VAGUS)
– Their activity slow down the heart beat (go to normal)
– Release asetilkolin.
2 factors influence the heart rate

• PHYSICALLY FACTORS
• CHEMICAL FACTOR
 Cardiac Output (CO)

• Cardiac output- is the total volume of

blood pumped by the ventricle per minute.
• This volume depends on two factors :
- heart rate (HR)
- stroke volume (SV).

• The amount of blood pumped by the left

ventricle each time it contracts.
• The amount of blood ejected by ventricle during
each contraction is called the stroke volume (SV).
• In a resting adult, SV averages 70 ML and HR is
about 75 beats per minute.

• Thus the average CO in a resting adult is

CO = stroke volume X beats per min
= 70ML X 75/min
= 5250 ML/min or 5.25 L/min

• A person with this stroke volume & resting pulse

of 70 beats/min has a cardiac output of 5.25
L/min.
• CO can increase about fivefold during
heavy exercise.
• Determined by :
1. The amount of blood pumped by
the left (or right) ventricle during each beat.
2. The number of heart beats per minute.
Electrocardiogram
Electrocardiogram(ECG)
Electrocardiogram(ECG)
Changes in ECG, contractions, volumes and pressure
in one cardiac cycle
• P
– Atrial depolarisation and the spread of impulse throughout the atria
• QRS
– Ventricular depolarisation
• T
– Ventricular depolarisation
 Changes in the pressure and volume of the left atrium
• Goes up and down in three wave
First wave
• Left atrium contract – pressure increases –
volume decreases
• Blood is forced to the ventricles
Second wave
• Bicuspid valve shutting and its upward
bulge (outward curve) increases its pressure
and decreases its volume
• Left atrium is relaxing
Third wave
• Filling blood from pulmonary vein
• Pressure drops due to the opening of
bicuspid valve when the pressure of the left
ventricle falls below the pressure

Atrial systole
• Pressure increases slowly as its volume also

Ventricular
increases because of the continual filling of

systole
blood before the cycle repeat.
 Changes in the pressure and volume of the left ventricle
First wave
• There is a slight increase in
pressure and volume due to
systole of atria
• Volume is filled to maximum
Second wave
• Pressure increases to maximum,
volume squeezed to zero
• During diastole, muscle relaxes –
pressure drops to zero – volume
start to increase due to filling of
blood from the atrium.

Ventricular systole
Third wave
• Pressure hardly increases –
volume gradually filled Atrial systole
• Cycle repeats
 Changes in the pressure and volume of aorta
During atrial systole
• Pressure of aorta decreases after the recoil
of blood towards the heart and volume
decreases slightly
During ventricular systole
• Blood is forced into it – increases its
pressure and volume to their maximum
During ventricular diastole
• Its blood pressure decreases – there is
notch (called nacrotic notch) due to the
shutting of its semilunar valve at its base
• Its pressure then continual to fall but
would not fall to zero because it will not
dilates too much and there is always blood
in it before the next wave comes. The

Ventricular systole
pulsating changes in the aorta continue in
the arteries as pulses

Atrial systole
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 Lymphatic System
• The lymphatic system is an
accessory of the circulatory
system that is connected with
blood circulation.
• Its three principal functions
are:
– to collect and return interstitial fluid,
including plasma protein to the blood,
and thus help maintain fluid balance,
– to defend the body against disease by
producing lymphocytes,
– to absorb lipids from the intestine and
transport them to the blood
• It consists of lymphatic
vessels and lymph tissue.
• It has tiny “dead-end”
capillaries that extend into
almost all tissues.
• Tissues fluid enters the
lymph capillaries
• Lymph capillaries conduct
the lymph to larger vessels
called Lymph veins.
• Lymph veins enter lymph nodes
(small organized masses of lymph
tissues).
• Lymph nodes are located along
the lymphatic vessels, usually in
group, some superficial (easily
located during infection) and some
deep.
the most numerous in the neck
region, armpits, groin region
and in the chest and abdomen.

• In an infected area, lymph nodes

enlarge conspicuously and may
be felt as hard little knots below
the skin.
• Two main functions :

 To filter foreign
substances in lymph
 To produces ß-lymphocytes
(white blood cell)

• Lymph veins that leave the

lymph nodes conduct lymph
toward the shoulder region.
• Lymph veins empty their
contents into the subclavian
veins by way of the thoracic
and right lymphatic ducts.
• Tonsils are masses of
lymph tissue under the
oral cavity and throat.
• Tonsils help protect
the respiratory system
from infection.
Cardiovascular Diseases
 Cardiovascular Diseases
Explain
• Myocardial infarction
• Hypertension
• Arteriosclerosis
• Angina pectoris
 Myocardial infarction (MI)
• Myocardial infarction
– death of some of the muscle
cells of the heart as a result
of a lack supply of oxygen
and other nutrients.
• It caused by closure of the
artery that supplies a
particular part of the heart
muscle with blood.
• This occurs 98% of the
time from the process of
arteriosclerosis ("hardening
of the arteries") in coronary
vessels.
• Although it once was felt
that most heart attacks were
caused from the slow
closure of an artery, say
from 90 or 95% to 100%, it
is now clear that this process
can occur in even minor
blockages where there is
rupture of the cholesterol
plaque. This in turn causes
blood clotting within the
artery, blocking the flow of
blood.
• The heart muscle which is injured in
this way can cause irregular rhythms
which can be fatal, even when there
is enough muscle left to pump plenty
of blood.

• When the injured area heals, it will

leave a scar.

• While the heart won't be able to

pump quite as much as before, there
is often plenty of good muscle left to
take care of the job, and recovery can
be quite complete.
 Hypertension
• High blood pressure is considered the most important
public health problem in many developed countries.

• typically has no symptoms, it is readily detectable and it is

treatable

• The common cause of death from untreated high blood

pressure is heart disease.

• may also cause stroke, kidney failure, and blindness by

producing hemorrhages (bleeding) in the retina of the eye
(retinopathy).
What Constitutes High Blood Pressure?
According to the American Heart Association Guidelines,
high blood pressure in an adult is defined as a systolic
pressure of 140 mm Hg or higher and/or a diastolic pressure
of 90 mm Hg or higher.
Blood Optimal High Hypertension
pressure

Systolic Less than 130- 140 or higher

120 139
Diastolic Less than 85-89 90 or higher
80
 Arteriosclerosis
• Arteriosclerosis is often referred to as "hardening of the
arteries.
• It occurs over a period of many years during which the
arteries of the cardiovascular system develop areas which
become hard and brittle. Vessels become thickened. There
is a loss of elasticity.
• It can involve the arteries of the cardiovascular system, the
brain, kidneys, upper and lower extremities. This occurs
because of the deposition of calcium in their walls.
• Differs from atherosclerosis, which involves the build up
of fatty deposits in the innermost lining of large and
medium-sized arteries
• What Are the Causative Factors?

• There are a number of factors which are

causative these include:
-Hypertension
-Diabetes mellitus
-Smoking
-Obesity
 Angina Pectoris

• Angina pectoris is the medical term for chest

pain or discomfort due to coronary heart
disease.
• It is a symptom of a condition called
myocardial ischemia.
• Occurs when the heart muscle (myocardium)
doesn't get as much blood (hence as much
oxygen) as it needs
When does angina pectoris occur?

• Angina often occurs when the heart needs

more blood. 

For example….
• running to catch a bus could trigger an
attack of angina while walking might not. 
Angina may happen during exercise, strong
emotions or extreme temperatures. Some
people, such as those with a coronary
artery spasm, may have angina when
they're resting.
TRANSPORT IN
PLANTS
• XYLEM
– Translocates mainly
water, mineral salts,
some organic nutrien
from roots to the
aerial parts of the
plants.

• PHLOEM
– Translocates a variety
of organic and
inorganic solutes,
mainly from the
expended leaves to
the other parts of the
plant
 The movement of the water into and across the root
• Water enter the plants through
the following transport pathway

SOIL EPIDERMIS

ROOT CORTEX XYLEM

• In the absorbing region of the

root, most plants have root
hairs. They increase the surface
area of the root

• Water enters the roots by

osmosis, moving down a water
potential gradient from the soil
into the root hairs.
 XYLEM
• Water and mineral salts
from soil enter the plant
through the epidermis of
roots, cross the root
cortex, pass into the stele,
and then flow up xylem
vessels to the shoot
system.

• Three pathways to water

to move from one cell to
the other in the plant;
1. Apoplast pathway
2. Symplast pathway
3. Vacuolar pathway
 1. Apoplast pathway
 Water and mineral ions do
not enter cells in the root
but just move along the
porous cellulose wall
2. Symplast pathway
 Water and ions enter the
protoplast without going
through the vacuole
 Move through
plasmodesmata within
cells.
3. Vacuolar pathway
 Water and mineral ions
move into sap vacuole
from one cell to another
through plasma membrane
involving the
plasmodesmata.
• the inner boundary of the cortex, the
endodermis, is impermeable to water
because of a band of suberized matrix
called the *casparian strip.

• *Casparian strip
– impermeable to water, water
cannot diffuse into endodermal
cells through the radial and
horizontal walls, so it has to cross
over actively from parenchyma
cells to xylem vessels through the
cytoplasm of the endodermal cells.

• Therefore, to enter the stele,

apoplastic water must enter the
symplasm of the endodermal cells.

• From here it can pass by

plasmodesmata into the cells of the
stele.
• Once inside the stele,
water is again free to
move between cells as
well as through them.

• In young roots, water

enters directly into the
xylem vessels and or
tracheids.

• These are nonliving

conduits (large pipe
through which liquids
flow) so are part of the
apoplast.
Water movement via xylem by:-

1. Transpiration pull
2. Cohesion & adhesion
3. Tension
4. Root pressure
 Transpiration-Pull
• we have seen, water is continually
being lost from leaves by
transpiration that created osmotic
pressure .

• Dixon and Joly believed that the

loss of water in the leaves exerts a
pull power (transpiration) on the
water in the xylem vessels and
draws more water into the leaf.

• Cohesive forces among water

molecules and transpiration pull
from the leaves maintains a
continuous flow of water up the
stem.
 Cohesion and Tension
• There is a high force among water
molecules because of hydrogen
bonds and is responsible for its
surface tension.

• Together with adhesive force,

water creates a transpiration pull
in xylem vessels when
evaporation occurs in the leaves.
This helps transport water and
mineral ions up to the leaves.

• Negative pressure occurs in

xylem vessels and developed
water tension. Such a powerful
water tension is enough to
overcome the frictional force and
gravitational force.
 Root pressure
• All intake of water by rooted plants is
done through the root system.

• Transpiration puts the xylem under

tension all the way down to the root
tips, lowering the water potential in the
root xylem and pulling water from the
soil.

• For the most part, xylem sap is not

pushed from below by root pressure but
pulled upward by the leaves
themselves.

• At most, root pressure can force water

upward only a few meters, and many
plants generate no root pressure at all.
Transpiration Pull
•Evaporation from leaves
creates a negative pressure
potential

Cohesion
Water column is held together
by cohesion.

Adhesion
Adhesion to cell walls keeps
water column in place

Root pressure
Negative pressure potential is
transferred to root cells and
water enters roots
 The uptake of mineral ions into the roots.
• Plants also require mineral
elements.
– Macronutrient-N, K, Ca, Mg, S,
Fe
– Micronutrient-Zn, Cu, Cl,
Mangan, Boron

• Dissolved mineral ions from

the soil water move into

– Epidermis of roots
• by active transport, using
respiration energy

– Cross the root cortex

• apoplast and simplast pathway.
 The uptake of mineral ions into the roots.
• Roots are highly selective
about which ions they take up
in any quantity from the soil.

• Most ions enter roots hair cells

through transporter protein in
the cell surface membrane

• They may move into the root

down their concentration
gradient, by facilitated
diffusion or by active transport.
• Transport of mineral through the root
is usually by combination of apoplast
and symplast pathway.

• Casparian strips ensure that all

substances entering the stele pass
through at least one membrane,
allowing only selected ions to pass
into the stele.

• It also prevent stele contents from

leaking back into the apoplast and out
into the soil.

• Endodermic and parenchyma cells

selectively discharge minerals into
the apoplast so they may enter the
xilem. This action probably involves
diffusion and active transport.
• Once in the xylem, water with
the minerals that have been
deposited in it move up in the
vessels and tracheids.

• At any level, the water can leave

the xylem and pass laterally to
supply the needs of other tissues.

• At the leaves, the xylem passes

into the petiole and then into the
veins of the leaf.

• Water leaves the finest veins and

enters the cells of the spongy and
palisade layers.
 PHLOEM AND
TRANSLOCATION
PHLOEM AND TRANSLOCATION
Translocation
• the movement of sucrose and other organic materials from
one place to another within the plant body, primarily through
the phloem.
• Concentration (pressure) gradients drive this process.

• Phloem transport solutes from a source (supply) to a sink

(metabolism or storage), including a storage organ to an actively
growing organ.

• Translocation of solutes is in both directions, though usually is

from leaves to root.
 PHLOEM FUNCTION AND ANATOMY

• Phloem
– located outside of the xylem
in both primary and
secondary vascular systems.
The mechanism of Translocation in phloem

• Munch’s mass flow hypothesis / Pressure-

flow hypothesis.
 The mechanism of Translocation in phloem
MUNCH’S MASS FLOW HYPOTHESIS/PRESSURE – FLOW
HYPOTHESIS
• The mechanism of phloem translocation was a subject of research from the 1930s to
the mid-1970s.
• Today is the pressure-flow hypothesis first proposed by ERNST MÜNCH
(Forstbotanisches Institut, Universität München) in 1926 widely accepted as the
most probable mechanism.
• It states that the flow of solution in the sieve elements is
driven by an osmotically generated pressure gradient
between source and sink tissue.
1. In the leaves, sugar is
actively loaded into sieve
tubes by indirect proton
pump.

3. During the loading

process, it creates water
potential in the sieve
tubes of the leaves and
water goes in through
osmosis via semi-
permeable membrane.

5. Sugar forces out the

leaves into stem (B).
 1. At C, sugar is unloaded because of passive transport and used in respiration.
2. At the same time, water moves out to xylem (D) because the water potential in
sieve tubes of the root increases.

The points against this hypothesis

• It cannot explain the fast reverse in flow from the root to the leaves.
 Pressure flow hypothesis
 The best-supported theory to
explain the movement of
food through the phloem is
called the pressure-flow
hypothesis.

 It proposes that water

containing food molecules
flows under pressure through
the phloem.

 The pressure is created by

the difference in water
concentration of the solution
in the phloem and the
relatively pure water in the
nearby xylem ducts.

 At their "source" - the leaves

- sugars are pumped by
active transport into the
companion cells and sieve
elements of the phloem.
 As sugars (and other products of
photosynthesis) accumulate in
the phloem, water enters by
osmosis.

 In the figure, sugar molecules

are represented in black, water
molecules in red.

 Turgor pressure builds up in the

sieve tubes (similar to the
creation of root pressure).

 As the fluid is pushed down

(and up) the phloem, sugars are
removed by the cortex cells of
both stem and root (the "sinks")
and consumed or converted into
starch.
 1. Starch is insoluble and exerts no
osmotic effect.

3. Therefore, the osmotic pressure of the

contents of the phloem decreases.

5. Finally, relatively pure water is left in

the phloem, and this leaves by
osmosis and/or is drawn back into
nearby xylem vessels by the suction
of transpiration-pull.

7. Thus it is the pressure gradient

between "source" (leaves) and "sink"
(shoot and roots) that drives the
contents of the phloem up and down
through the sieve tubes.
 • The pressure flow model
explains why phloem sap
always flows from sugar source
to sugar sink, regardless of their
locations in the plant.
The end