Quality And Reliability

OF Electronic
Components
C.A. Ignatious
DD, VSSC (SR)
Definitions

Reliability - The ability of an item to
perform its required function under
defined conditions for a stated period
of time.

Failure The termination of the ability
of an item to perform its required
function.

Degrees of Failure
Failures may be SUDDEN (non-
predictable) or GRADUAL (predictable).
They may also be PARTIAL or
COMPLETE.

A Catastrophic failure is both sudden and
complete.

A Degradation failure is both gradual and
partial.
Causes of Failure
Misuse failures attributable to the
application of stresses beyond the
stated capabilities of the item.

Inherent Weakness failures
attributable to weakness inherent in
the item itself when subjected to
stresses within the stated capabilities
of the item.
Cost-Reliability Functions
MTBF & MTTF
Mean Time Between Failures Applies to
repairable items.

Mean Time To Failure Applies to non-
repairable items.

Both of these terms indicate the average
time an item is expected to function
before failure.


Failure Rate vs Time
Early Failures substandard
components, manufacturing faults.
Random Failures this is the
useful lifetime of the item.
Reliability is predictable in this
region.
End-of-Life Failures items
reaching the end of their useful life.
Also called the wear-out period.
Because of the characteristic shape, this
is commonly known as the Bathtub Curve.
Useful Lifetime
t
m
R e

=
Reliability is predictable.
R = reliability.
t = time for which equipment is run.
m = MTBF
Note that R has no units. The prediction yields a number <1.
Closer to 1 = greater reliability.
Examples
If an item of equipment has MTBF of 500hrs, then the reliability for 100hrs
operation is :-
100
500
e

= 0.8187 (81.87% probability of survival)

and if the equipment is operated for 1000hrs, the reliability will be :-
500
1000
e

=0.1353 (13.53% probability of survival)

Failure Rate
Failure unit = 1 FIT = 1 failure/1000000000 (9 zeroes) device hrs
Example: System with 100,000 discrete parts, has one failure per
month, then the failure rate
l = 1 failure / 100,000/(30x24 hrs) = 14 E -9 = 14 FIT
Summary:
FIT Failures/month # devices failing in 10 years
10 0.7 0.1%
100 7.0 1.0%
1000 70 10%
A failure rate of about 10 FIT is needed.
At 1000 FIT there are about 2 failures/day and the entire system
will be replaced over its life time
Testing Time to Reliability
Testing and Proving Reliability is very Expensive as Illustrated
in These Tables

Table 1: For 100 devices on test

FIT Test Time for 1 failure (Years)
10 114
100 11
1000 1
Accelerated Testing
Stresses are used to accelerate failure. For example
temperature cycling is used to accelerate mechanical failure.

Temperature Acceleration
Voltage Acceleration
Current Acceleration
Humidity Acceleration

Different failure mechanisms may be accelerated by different
amounts for the same stress.
Accelerated Life
The bathtub curve predicts a high
early failure rate.

Elevated temperatures are used to
accelerate component aging and
ensure that products move from the
Early Failure area and into the
Useful Lifetime area.

The technique is used to pre-screen
early failures during manufacturing.
High temperatures accelerate all known chemical
reactions. Almost all failure mechanisms associated
with semiconductor devices are the result of a
chemical reaction
Arrhenius Equation
= Rate of the chemical reaction.
= A constant.
e = Activation energy in electron volts (eV) that is
associated with the chemical reaction.
K = Boltzmans constant.
T = Absolute temperature.
0
A
E
KT
r r e

=
r
r
0
r
Acceleration Factor
is the elevated temperature.

is the temperature for which the
new reaction rate is calculated.

Is the reaction rate at the
elevated temperature.

Is the reaction rate at
1
T
2
T
1
r
2
r
2
T
The constant, , is the same for both
temperatures and has been cancelled out of
the equation
0
r
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2 1
1 1
2
1
T T K
E
A
e
r
r
Acceleration Fctor
Acceleration Factor and Time Equivalent to 40 Years
Time Equivalent to
Acceleration Factor 40 years in Hours
Temp (C) Ea = 1.0 eV Ea=1.0 eV

300 2.2e6 0.2
250 3.2e5 1.1
200 3.1e4 11
150 1700 200
125 300 1,200
85 11.5 30,000
Temp Ambient = 60 C
Failure Mechanisms
Electrostatic Discharge
Alpha-Particle-Induced Soft Errors
Radiation Hard Devices
Metal Electromigration
Sodium Metal Migration in Gate Oxide
Hot Electrons
Oxide Breakdown
Latch Up in CMOS Circuits
Metallisation Corrosion
Design &
Manufacture

Pre-Production Design
Control of Production
Working Tolerances
Material Quality
Component Quality
Component Stress
Installation &
Environmental

Temperature
Humidity
Vibration
Chemical Attack
Interconnections

Factors Affecting
Reliability
Factors Affecting
Reliability
Installation
&
Environmental
Temperature
Generally, Operation at higher
temperatures degrades reliability
performance. Internally generated heat
must be removed by mechanisms such
as cooling fins or forced-air.

In high ambient temperatures, the
process of removing excess heat
becomes more difficult.

Equipment operating in low ambient
temperatures will need to be
designed using components
which can tolerate this environment.

Humidity
Moisture can cause oxidation and corrosion and
reduce insulation effectiveness. Particularly
vulnerable are solder joints and connectors.

Equipment designed for use in areas of high humidity
will use components and materials which are
selected for their resistance to damage by
moisture.

Vulnerable components, such as circuit boards, can
be protected by encapsulation e.g. in resin.
Individual components may be hermetically sealed.

Vibration
Vehicles (cars, ships, aircraft etc) are
particularly prone to vibration
damage.

Vulnerable equipment can use flexible
mountings.

Components on a PCB can be made less susceptible to vibration by the
use of encapsulation.

Vibration effects on electronic components has been minimised by the
process of miniaturisation.

Interconnections
Interconnections are liable to degradation by vibration,
humidity and chemical factors. They are one of the
most vulnerable components in an electronic system.
Factors Affecting
Reliability
Design
&
Manufacture



Component Reliability
Typical Failure Rates of Electronic Components

Component Type Failure Rate (%/1000h)
Capacitors Ceramic 0.001
Paper 0.005
Tantalum 0.01
Electrolytic 0.01

Diodes Silicon 0.001

Resistors Carbon 0.001
Wirewound 0.001
Film 0.001

Transistors Discrete Silicon 0.01

Connections Soldered 0.001

Connectors Per Pin 0.005
Operating Stresses
Weighting Factors for Electronic Components

Component Operating Condition Weighting Factor
Resistors 0.1 of max. rating 1.0
Transistors 0.5 of max. rating 1.5
Diodes 1.0 of max. rating 2.0

Capacitors 0.1 of wkg voltage 1.0
0.5 of wkg voltage 3.0
max wkg voltage 6.0

}
System Failure Rate = [(Component Failure Rate) x (Quantity) x (Weighting Factor)]

Mil std 217 gives very detailed system failure rate prediction based on
component failure rate and end use
IC Fabrication An
Introduction
Integrated circuit
showing
memory blocks,
logic and
input/output
pads around the
periphery
Silicon chip
High lead solder die attach
Tin/lead plated copper
leadframe
Front-End Processing (Wafer fabrication)
Back-End Processing (Assembly and
Testing)

Semiconductor Fabrication
Processes
A logic circuit diagram is drawn to determine the
electronic circuit required for the requested
function.
Once the logic circuit diagram is complete,
simulations are performed multiple times to test the
circuits operation.
Logic Circuit Design / Layout
Design
Photomask Creation
The photomask is a copy of the circuit pattern, drawn
on a glass plate coated with a metallic film.
The glass plate lets light pass, but the metallic film
does not.
Due to increasingly high integration and
miniaturization of the pattern, the size of the
photomask is usually magnified four to ten times the
actual size.
The
photomask
of a RF IC
Chip

Wafer Fabrication

A high-purity, single-crystal silicon called
"99.999999999% (eleven-nine)" is grown from a
seed to an ingot.
The wafers are generally available in diameters of
150 mm, 200 mm, or 300 mm, and are mirror-
polished and rinsed before shipment from the
wafer manufacturer.
Deposition

the wafer is placed in a high-temperature furnace to
make the silicon react with oxygen or water vapor, and
to develop oxide films on the wafer surface (thermal
oxidation).
To develop nitride films and polysilicon films, the
chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method is used, in
which a gaseous reactant is introduced to the silicon
substrate, and chemical reaction produce the deposited
layer material.
The metallic layers used in the wiring of the circuit are
also formed by CVD, spattering (PVD: physical vapor
deposition)
Photoresist Coating

A resin called "photoresist" is coated over the
entire wafer. (~1m thick coating.)
Photoresist is a special resin similar in
behavior to photography films that changes
properties when exposed to light.
Masking/Exposure
Placed over the photoresist-coated wafer, which
is then irradiated to have the circuit diagram
transcribed onto it.
An irradiation device called the "stepper" is used
to irradiate the wafer through the mask with
ultraviolet (UV) light.
Lithography area in clean room
Etching
"Etching" refers to the physical or chemical etching
of oxide films and metallic films using the resist
pattern as a mask.
Etching with liquid chemicals is called "wet
etching" and etching with gas is called "dry
etching".
Photoresist Stripping
The photoresist remaining on the wafer surface
is no longer necessary after etching is complete.
Ashing by oxygen plasma or the likes is
performed to remove the residual photoresist.
Device Insulation Layer (Field-
Oxide Film) Formation

After the oxide film and nitride film are
developed, a resist pattern is formed on the
regions that will become the device
insulation layer.
Ion implantation is performed on the wafer,
forming a p-type diffusion layer.
Next, the oxide film and nitride film on the
diffusion layer are etched.
Using the nitride film pattern as the mask,
the oxide film that will become the device
insulation layer is developed.
Transistor Formation

An insulation layer called "gate oxide" is first
formed on the wafer surface.
A polysilicon film is deposited onto the gate
oxide, and a polysilicon gate for controlling
the flow of electrons between the source
region and the drain region is formed by
lithography and etching.
After the polysilicon gate is formed, an n-
type diffusion layer consisting of both the
source and the drain regions is formed by
implantation of impurities
Polysilicon Gate
Cross-Section Image
Metallization
Interconnecting the devices, such as transistors, formed
on the silicon wafer completes the circuit.
the wafer is first covered with a thick and flat interlayer
insulation film (oxide film). Next, contact holes are
drilled by lithograph and etching, through the
interlayer insulation film, above the devices to be
connected.
Nine-layer Copper Interconnect Architecture
Wafer Inspection
Each IC on the completed wafer is electronically
tested by the tester.
After this inspection, the front-end processing is
complete.
Dicing
In back end processing, a wafer completed in
front end processing is cut into individual IC
chips and encapsulated into packages.
Mounting
After the IC chips are cut apart, they
are sealed into packages. The IC chips
must first be attached to a platform
called the "lead frame.
Wire bonding
The mounted IC chips are connected to the
lead frames.
Encapsulation
The IC chips and the lead frame islands are
encapsulated with molding resin for
protection.
Characteristic Selection
The packaged IC chips are tested and
selected.
Printing and Lead Finish
The final step of IC chip manufacturing is the
printing onto the package surface and the
finishing of leads. After this step, the IC
chips are complete.


Types and Causes of Defects

Resistive open due to unfilled via
[R. Madge et al., IEEE D&T, 2003]
Particle embedded
between layers
Process and Operational Variations

Even if there isnt a complete short
or open, resistance and capacitance
variations can lead to trouble
Chip temperature map


Yield and Its Associated Costs
15-30
cm
30-60 cm
Silicon
crystal
ingot
Slicer
Processing:
20-30 steps
Blank wafer
with defects
x x
x x x
x x
x x
x x
0.2 cm
Patterned wafer
(100s of simple or scores
of complex processors)
Dicer
Die
~1 cm
Good
die
~1 cm
Die
tester
Microchip
or other part
Mounting
Part
tester
Usable
part
to ship
The dramatic decrease in yield with larger dies


Effect of Die Size on Yield
120 dies, 109 good 26 di es, 15 good
Shown are some random defects; there are also
bulk or clustered defects that affect a large region


Effects of Yield on Testing and Part
Reliability
Assume a die yield of 50%

Out of 2,000,000 dies manufactured, ~1,000,000 are defective

To achieve the goal of 100 defects per million (DPM) in parts shipped,
we must catch 999,900 of the 1,000,000 defective parts

Therefore, we need a test coverage of 99.99%
Testing is imperfect: missed defects/faults (coverage), false positives
Going from a coverage of 99.9% to 99.99% involves a significant
investment in test development and application times
High-rel Parts
Space Grade parts Class S/JAN S
Mil grade parts ClassB/JANTX/JTXV
Qualified & Certified Production Line
Devices produced as per Qualified Process
Products Qualified to Mil/Space level
100 % Screening as per Mil Std/883 or Mil Std 750
LAT/ Certificate for every batch
Standard electrical/environmental Specification

Very low failure rate
Mil Standards for Avionics
Parts
QML Parts
MIL-PRF-38535: "General Specification for microcircuits (IC)
Manufacturing" - Supersedes MIL-M-38510
Microcircuits manufactured, assembled, and tested according to
MIL-PRF-38535 bear the "QML certification mark
Class Q: Hermetic products. Military level covered by MIL-PRF-
38535 main body + appendixes C, D, E, F, G, H, J.
Class V: Space level: class Q + appendix B requirements.
Class M: covered by MIL-PRF-38535 appendix A. Require a
vendor self certification. DSCC performs verification audit only
Class N: plastic parts.

QML Q = 883 Class B (Mil) ; QML V = 883 Class S (Space)
MIL-PRF-19500: General Specification
for Semiconductor Devices

Supersedes MIL-S-19500 ; Refers to MIL -STD-750 test
methods
Quality levels: classes JAN, JANTX, JANTXV, JANJ,
JANS
Class JAN: Military level QCI Only
Class JANTX: Screening and QCI without Visual
inspection
Class JANTXV: JANTX with Visual inspection
Class JANJ: Space level product as defined in the
specification sheet that can pass test and inspections in
Appendix E for JANTXV as a minimum. Not available for
all semiconductor devices.
Class JANS: Highest Space level product
Standards for Hybrids

MIL-PRF-38534/MIL-STD-883 are the controlling
specifications for hybrids.

Hybrids are made to class H or class K.

Class H requirements form the baseline.

The K level parts involve extra pre-build inspections of
components, post-build inspections and testing
Passive Parts : Established Reliability
The reliability rating are established on the basis
of life tests for various Failure Rates

Exponential distribution with 60% confidence level
and 10-percent producer's risk
M : 1.0 % per 1000 hours
P : 0.1 % per 1000 hours
R: 0.01 % per 1000 hours
S : 0.001% per 1000 hours

Weibull distribution with 90% confidence level
B: 0.1 % per 1000 hours
C: 0.01 % per 1000 hours
D : 0.001% per 1000 hours

Style and Type Reference
Specification
Fixed Ceramic
Dielectric
CKR/CKS
>1uF, use CKS only
MIL- PRF-39014
Fixed Mica Dielectric CMR MIL-PRF-39001
Fixed Tantalum Solid
Electrolytic
CSR MIL-PRF-39003
Fixed Ceramic Chip CDR MIL-PRF-55681
Fixed Tantalum Chip
Solid Electrolytic
CWR MIL-PRF-55365
Fixed Tantalum-Non
Solid Electrolytic
CLR MIL-PRF-39006
Capacitors (Established Reliability)
Fixed Carbon
Composition(Insulated)
RCR MIL-R-39008
Fixed Metal Film RLR MIL-PRF-39017
Fixed Wire Wound RWR MIL-PRF-39007
Fixed Wire Wound Power
Type
RER MIL-PRF-39009
Variable - Film/Foil RJR MIL-PRF-39035
Variable Wire Wound RTR MIL-PRF-39015
Fixed ,Film Networks MIL-R 83401
Thermistor RTH MIL-PRF-23648
Resistors (Established Reliability)
Power Inductors/
Transformers
MIL-PRF-27
MIL-PRF-21308
RF fixed colis MIL-PRF-39010
Chip inductors MIL-PRF-83446
Variable inductors MIL-PRF-15305
Magnetic elements
Connectors
Style and Type Reference Specification
Circular MIL-DTL-38999,MIL-C-26482
D Sub miniature
-Rectangular crimp type
-Flat type
MIL-DTL-24308
Microminiature MIL-DTL-83513
Printed Circuit
Angled spills
MIL-DTL-55302,MIL-C-24308
Coaxial(RF connectors) MIL-PRF-39012
MIL-STD-1553 Data Bus MIL-PRF-49142
Push pull connectors MIL-C-81703
Switches, fuses, wires and cables
Push switches MIL-PRF-8805
Fuses MIL-PRF-23419
Coaxial cable MIL-C-17
PTFE / Spec 55 insulated wires MIL-DTL-22759/86
MIL-W-16878
MIL-W-22789
Quality level for launch
vehicles
Microcircuits Parts listed in QML class Q/B
Parts listed in ESCC/DSCC/ JAXA QPL
including non-S
Discrete parts Jan TX/JTXV
Hybrids Class H/ Indigenous Class B/S
Passive
Parts
Established Reliability level S / R
RF and
Microwave
High REL parts (eg : HL grade)
Quality level for satellite
applications
Microcircuits Parts listed in DSCC QML Class V/S
or equivalent in QPL of ESCC /JAXA/ DSCC
Discrete parts Jan S
Hybrids Class K/ Indigenous Class S
Passive
Parts
Established Reliability level S / R
RF and
Microwave
High REL parts (eg : SHL grade)
Parts to be avoided in new designs
Parts not qualified to MIL/ESA spec
Parts that are obsolete and not available
Parts listed in MIL/ ESA/ NASA/ ISRO alert
system for quality issue
Parts having export license issue
Parts for which criticality and / or quality issues
were faced in ISRO applications in the past (eg.
LT1086)
The Preferred Parts List
Components listed in the VSSC Preferred Parts List (PPL) only
are used for launch vehicle applications.
Part A : Parts listed in Part A are qualified as per MIL/ESA-
SCC/ISRO GSS/BS9000 (Hi-rel MIL specifications) and are
available as standard MIL parts from manufacturers.

Part B : Parts which are not qualified to Hi-rel MIL specifications.
These are non-MIL devices based on experience in usage and
qualification tests conducted by VSSC.

Part C : Parts which are not qualified to Hi-rel MIL specifications.
These are non-MIL devices. based on experience in usage and
qualification tests conducted by VSSC. Recommended only for
Non-critical applications.
Parts quality- NASA experience
One study Reviewed DODs satellite and missile
systems and NASA systems
Parts quality problems affected all 21 programs reviewed
They caused cost over runs and schedule delays.
($250M and 2 year delay in one case)
More problems were associated with electronic parts
(65%) than mechanical (15%) parts or materials (20%).
Explained by presence of more electrical components
than mechanical devices.
US government recommends action for preventing,
detecting, and mitigating parts quality problems
Parts Quality Assurance
Requirements

Assurance of procurement from qualified
sources or their authorized distributors
Quality Conformance Inspection (QCI) to
ensure that each lot meets the spec
Receiving inspection to verify compliance
with the controlling specifications
Screening to remove defective parts
DPA to be performed when part is not QML
/QPL and procured from traceable source
Application Criteria
Requirements.

Derating guidelines shall be met by the design

Operating Environment requirement including
temperature, humidity, shock, and vibration should be met
by the part spec.
For most space applications, military qualified parts will
satisfy these requirements except for radiation

Effects of the projected ionizing radiation on each part
shall be determined.
Failure mitigation or a design margin shall be
established by the project
Manufacturing and handling
requirements
ESD control in accordance with MIL-STD-1686
Environmental controls such as temperature and
humidity during parts handling, packaging, and storage.
Rescreening if a maximum period has elapsed since
screening
Procured quantities should allow for nominal fallout of
parts in screening.
Parts should be ordered from a single date code for
effectiveness of qualification
Ensure part compatibility with planned manufacturing
processes.
Parts affected by ALERTS shall not be used in
manufacturing
Traceability : identifying which package contains specific
part lots
Pure Tin finish on IC leads
Pure tin (Sn) coatings mandated by
regulations on leads and other surfaces of
parts.
Pure tin electroplates develop tin whiskers.
May result in a visible "electrical short
The short may result in fusing of the
whisker, but the device would have
damaged aleady.
Reliability analysis

Failure mode effects and criticality analysis
Analyses the effect of each part failure mode
Ranks each failure mode based on criticality of the result and the
probability of occurrence
Worst case analysis
Verifies the circuit operation at all combinations of input conditions
and part parameters
Carried out by dividing to smaller blocks
Part Stress Analysis
Failure rates increase exponentially with stress on part (voltage,
current and power dissipation )
Analysis ensures that stresses are below the maximum rating of
the part
Single Event Effects Analysis

Failure rate of components - The bath
tub curve
Nature of failures during life
cycle
Initial failures result from contaminations and
process variations
Such devices are removed by high voltage stress
tests at wafer probing or by burn-in tests on
packaged device
Random failures are triggered by electrical noise,
electrostatic discharge and electrical overstress
and enhanced by minor defects
Wear out failures result from electro-migration, hot
carrier effect, time dependent dielectric break
down etc
Causes of field failure- EOS
and ESD
An EOS event can be a momentary event lasting only
milliseconds or can last indefinitely.
EOS can be the result of a single g event or the result
of ongoing periodic or non-periodic events.
EOS is a lower voltage (<100V) and large peak current
(>10A) event that occurs over longer time frame
(generally >1ms).
ESD is a very high voltage (generally >500V) and
moderate peak current (~1A to 10A) event that occurs
in a short time frame (generally <1s).
Possible causes of EOS

o Uncontrolled voltage surge on the power
supply.
o Voltage spikes due to internal PCB switching.
o Voltage spikes due to an external connection
o capacitive charge on an external cable,
antenna pick-up of external switching noise,
inductive loads.
o Poor grounding resulting in excessive noise.
o Overshoot or undershoot during IO switching.
o EMI due to poor shielding
o ESD events that weaken the device.
o Latch-up events
Non mil grade parts
Availability of military standard electronic parts diminishing

State of the art parts available only in commercial and industrial
grades

Devices in small foot print packages available
Initial (acquisition ) cost is less.

Wider operating temperature range (-55C to 125C) than
standard industrial parts (-40C to 85C) available in some cases
Concerns with non mil parts
Time to obsolescence in some cases is as low
as one to two years; Re-procurement may not be
possible.
No alternate manufacturer for most parts
A manufacturer uses a number of fabs, packaging
houses, test houses etc. Reliability can vary
from lot to lot.
Traceability is poor. Many devices do not have
even date code information
Failure analysis and DPA are difficult

Concerns with Non mil grade parts (contd..)
Design compromises like reduced metallization and oxide
layer thickness reduce reliability.

Design for a life of less than 5 years is normal
Process changes incorporated by manufacturer are unknown to
customers and may have negative impacts for space applications.

Device may not have sufficient EOS/ESD protection built in to its
design
Lack of characterization data for space environment
Radiation performance
Insufficient environmental/ mechanical/ electrical testing

Not following Design For Test practices result in low fault coverage

Additional Concerns with PEMS
Parts in plastic packages absorbs moisture leading to
corrosion
Popcorn effect due to absorbed moisture
Thermal cycling induced cracking, delamination, die
detachment or damage to metal conductors
Recommended to use metal clad PCBs
Traces of radio active materials in molding compound
lead to soft errors.
Failure rate comparison : mil and non-mil
Failure rate of PEMs from reputed
manufacturers like Analog Devices,Texas etc.
are comparable to Mil std parts.

However, humidity and thermal cycling
performance tend to be inferior.


NASA policy on usage of PEMs
Use of PEMs is permitted on NASA spaceflight
applications, provided
Each use is thoroughly evaluated for thermal,
mechanical, and radiation implications of the
specific application and if found to meet
mission requirements.
PEMs shall be selected for their functional advantage
and availability, not for cost saving
The steps necessary to ensure reliability usually negate
any initial apparent cost advantage.
A PEM shall not be substituted for a form, fit and
functional equivalent, high reliability, hermetic device
in space flight applications.

VSSC policy for induction of Industrial
grade parts
Recommended for Telemetry applications only
Industrial grade parts of higher reliability or temperature range
(-55 C to 125 C) are preferred
QMB approves the usage after considering
Criticality of the parameter for which the particular part has
been selected
Manufacturer assessment
Destructive Part Analysis Result
Qualification test result
VSSC PPL lists industrial grade parts in a separate section.

Use of non mil parts in NGC applications
More stringent control needed in procurement, storage,
qualification and screening for critical applications.

Procurement should be only from reputed manufacturers

Storage and ESD conditions prior to procurement should
be known

Procurement should be made in as few date code codes
as possible and each lot should subjected to sample
DPA and qualification.
Screening flow to incorporate C-SAM test, which is found
to be very effective in detecting cracks, debonds and
delaminations.


Non-ER versus ER parts : Example of Multi-
layer Ceramic Capacitors :
Attribute Non-ER MIL-ER
Smallest Chip
Sizes
0201
01005 (new to market)
0805
Lowest Voltage
Ratings
6.3 V 50 V
No. of sources Numerous Few
Delivery time Days to weeks Weeks to Months
Procurement
Costs
Small large
Vendor Design
Rules
Variable & Aggressive Stable &
Conservative
Qualification Basis Non Standard Standard
Process Material
Change
More frequent, without
notice to user
Less frequent,
needs re
qualification
Reliability Not known Published Failure
rates
Technological Differences
ER capacitors uses Precious Metal Electrodes (PME)
like Palladium Silver; use of Base Metal Electrodes
(BME) like nickel is prohibited
Commercial caps can make use of BME for cost saving.
The firing process used with BME affects the insulating
properties of barium titanate dielectric
In ER type MLCC, maximum value available is 1F.
Values larger than 1F are available with COTS
Achieved using thin dielectric(0.2mil) compared with mil for
ER types (1.0 mil minimum)
Process variations may induce voids and cracks in
Commercial caps using thin dielectric
Can result in short circuit failures

Structure of an MLCC
Use of non-ER parts

Non-ER parts should be avoided as far as possible
If essential,
non ER parts should be selected from a Hi- Rel line.
Use manufacturer- suggested Hi-Rel versions
KEMET : GR900 series, High Rel COTS
VISHAY : VJ High Rel
SYFER : S05,S02A series
Qualification should be carried out for each lot


Thank You