Overview of Objective-C

Objective-C is an object oriented language. follows ANSI C style coding with methods from Smalltalk There is no formal written standard
Relies mostly on libraries written by others

Flexible almost everything is done at runtime.

Dynamic Binding Dynamic Typing Dynamic Linking

Inventors
Objective-C was invented by two men, Brad Cox and Tom Love. Both were introduced to Smalltalk at ITT in 1981 Cox thought something like Smalltalk would be very useful to application developers Cox modified a C compiler and by 1983 he had a working Object-oriented extension to C called OOPC.
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Development
Tom Love acquired a commercial copy of Smalltalk-80 while working for Schlumberger Research With direct access Smalltalk, Love added more to OOPC making the final product, Objective-C. In 1986 they release Objective-C through their company Stepstone
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NeXT and NeXTSTEP

In 1988 Steve Jobs acquires Objective-C license for NeXT Used Objective-C to build the NeXTSTEP Operating System Objective-C made interface design for NeXTSTEP much easier NeXTSTEP was derived from BSD Unix In 1995 NeXT gets full rights to ObjectiveC from Stepstone
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OPENSTEP API
Developed in 1993 by NeXT and Sun An effort to make NeXTSTEP-like Objective-C implementation available to other platforms. In order to be OS independent
Removed dependency on Mach Kernel Made low-level data into classes

Paved the way for Mac OS X, GNUstep

Apple and Mac OS X

NeXT is taken over by Apple in 1996 and put Steve Jobs and his Objective-C libraries to work Redesigned Mac OS to use objective-C similar to that of NeXTSTEP Developed a collection of libraries named Cocoa to aid GUI development Release Mac OS X (ten), which was radically different than OS 9, in March 2001
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The Cocoa API

Primarily the most frequently used frameworks nowadays. Developed by Apple from NeXTSTEP and OPENSTEP Has a set of predefined classes and types such as NSnumber, NSstring, Nsdate, etc. NS stands for NeXT-sun Includes a root class NSObject where words like alloc, retain, and release come from
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Dynamic Language
Almost everything is done at runtime Uses dynamic typing, linking, and binding This allows for greater flexibility Minimizes RAM and CPU usage

To Import or Include?
#import head.h
C/C++s #include will insert head.h into the code even if its been added before. Obj-Cs #import checks if head.h has been imported beforehand.

Messages
Almost every object manipulation is done by sending objects a message Two words within a set of brackets, the object identifier and the message to send.
[Identifier message ]

Because of dynamic binding, the message and receiver are joined at runtime
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Basic syntax structure

C++ syntax
void function(int x, int y, char z); Object.function(x, y, z);

Objective-C syntax
-(void) function:(int)x, (int)y, (char)z;
[Object function:x, y, z];
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Keyword: id
The word id indicates an identifier for an object much like a pointer in c++ This uses dynamic typing For example, if Pen is a class extern id Pen; id myPen; myPen = [Pen new ];
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Memory Allocation
Objects are created dynamically through the keyword, alloc Objects are dynamically deallocated using the words release and autorelease autorelease dealocates the object once it goes out of scope. NOTE: None of these words are built-in
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Ownership
Objects are initially owned by the id that created them. Like C pointers, multiple IDs can use the same object. However, like in C if one ID releases the object, then any remaining pointers will be referencing invalid memory. A method like retain can allow the object to stay if one ID releases it.
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Prototyping functions
When declaring or implementing functions for a class, they must begin with a + or + indicates a class method that can only be used by the class itself. In other words, theyre for private functions. - indicates instance methods to be used by the client program (public functions).

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Class Declaration (Interface)

node.h

@interface Node : NSObject { Node *link; int contents; } +(id)new; -(void)setContent:(int)number; -(void)setLink:(Node*)next; -(int)getContent; -(Node*)getLink; @end
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Class Definition (Implementation)

#import "node.h @implementation Node +(id)new { return [Node alloc];} -(void)setContent:(int)number {contents = number;} -(void)setLink:(Node*)next { [link autorelease]; link = [next retain]; } -(int)getContent {return contents;} -(Node*)getLink {return link;} @end node.m

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C++

VS.

Objective-C
Only adds OOP to C Has no standard library; is dependant on other libraries Mostly used for application building Simpler way of handling classes and objects
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Adds OOP, meta programming and generic programming to C Comes with a std library Has numerous uses Large and complex code for OOP

Objective-C 2.0
In October 2007, Apple Inc. releases Objective-C 2.0 for Mac OS 10.5 (Leopard) Adds automatic garbage collection Instance Methods (public functions) are defined differently using @property

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linkList class
#import "linkList.h" @implementation linkList +(id)new {return [linkList alloc];} -(void)insert:(int)value { id temp = [Node new]; [temp setContent:value]; [temp setLink:head]; head = [temp retain]; [temp release]; }

linkList.m

-(void)append:(int)value { id last = [head getLink]; while ([last getLink] != nil) {last = [last getLink];} id temp = [Node new]; [temp setContent:value]; [last setLink:temp]; [temp release]; } -(void)remove { id temp = head; head = [head getLink]; [temp release]; } -(int)getValue { return [head getContent];} @end
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Stack class
#import "linkList.h @interface Stack : linkList {} +(id)new; -(void)push:(int)value; -(int)pop; @end

#import "stack.h @implementation Stack +(id)new {return [Stack alloc];} -(void)push:(int)value {[self insert:value];} -(int)pop { int ret = [self getValue]; [self remove]; return ret; } @end

stack.h

stack.m

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Example: main.c
#import "stack.h int main(){ Stack *s = [Stack [s push:1]; [s push:2]; printf("%d\t", [s [s push:3]; printf("%d\t", [s printf("%d\t", [s [s release]; return 0; }

main.c
new];

pop]); pop]); pop]);

$ gcc -x objective-c node.m linkList.m stack.m main.c -framework Cocoa -o stackTest $./stackTest 2 3 1
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C and Objective-C Programming

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Why learn C?
Objective-C is based on C Better control of low-level mechanisms Performance better than Java Java hides many details needed for writing OS code But,. Memory management responsibility Explicit initialization and error detection More room for mistakes
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Goals of this tutorial

To introduce some basic C concepts to you
so that you can read further details on your own

To warn you about common mistakes made by beginners

so that you get your homework done quickly

You can write more complicated code

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Simple Example
#include <stdio.h> void main(void) { printf(Hello World. \n \t and you ! \n ); /* print out a message */ return; }

$Hello World. and you ! $

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Summarizing the Example

#include <stdio.h>

= include header file stdio.h

No semicolon at end Small letters only C is case-sensitive

void main(void){ } is the only code executed printf( /* message you want printed */ ); \n = newline \t = tab Dessert: \ in front of other special characters within
printf.

printf(Have you heard of \The Rock\ ? \n);

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Simple Data Types

data-type # bytes(typical) hand values short int 4 -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 %d char 1 -128 to 127 %c float 4 3.4E+/-38 (7 digits) %f double 8 1.7E+/-308 (15 digits long) %lf long 4 -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 %l short 2 -32,768 to 32,767 Lookup: signed / unsigned - int, char, long, short long double 28 ex:

Example !
#include <stdio.h> void main(void) { int nstudents = 0; /* Initialization, required */

printf(How many students does ITU have ?:); scanf (%d, &nstudents); /* Read input */ printf(ITU has %d students.\n, nstudents);
return ;

}
$How many students does ITU have ?: 20000 (enter) ITU has 20000 students. $

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Type conversion
#include <stdio.h> void main(void) { int i,j = 12; /* i not initialized, only j */ float f1,f2 = 1.2; i = (int) f2; f1 = i; /* explicit: i <- 1, 0.2 lost */ /* implicit: f1 <- 1.0 */

f1 = f2 + (int) j; /* explicit: f1 <- 1.2 + 12.0 */ f1 = f2 + j; /* implicit: f1 <- 1.2 + 12.0 */

}

Explicit conversion rules for arithmetic operation x=y+z; convert y or z as

double <- float <- int <- char, short

then type cast it to x s type

Moral: stick with explicit conversions - no confusion !

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Like Java, like C

Operators same as Java: Arithmetic
int i = i+1; i++; i--; i *= 2; +, -, *, /, %,

Relational and Logical

<, >, <=, >=, ==, != &&, ||, &, |, !

Syntax same as in Java:

if ( ) { } else { } while ( ) { } do { } while ( ); for(i=1; i <= 100; i++) { } switch ( ) {case 1: } continue; break;

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Example
#include <stdio.h> #define DANGERLEVEL 5 /* C Preprocessor - substitution on appearance */ /* like Java final */ void main(void) { float level=1; /* if-then-else as in Java */ if (level <= DANGERLEVEL){ /*replaced by 5*/ printf(Low on gas!\n); } else printf(Good driver !\n); return; }
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One-Dimensional Arrays
#include <stdio.h> void main(void) { int number[12]; /* 12 cells, one cell per student */ int index, sum = 0; /* Always initialize array before use */ for (index = 0; index < 12; index++) { number[index] = index; } /* now, number[index]=index; will cause error:why ?*/

for (index = 0; index < 12; index = index + 1) { sum += number[index]; /* sum array elements */ }
return;
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More arrays
Strings
char name[6]; name = {C,S,4,1,4,\0}; /* \0= end of string */ printf(%s, name); /* print until \0 */

Functions to operate on strings

strcpy, strncpy, strcmp, strncmp, strcat, strncat, strstr,strchr #include <strings.h> at program start

Multi-dimensional arrays

int points[3][4]; points [1][3] = 12; /* NOT points[3,4] */ printf(%d, points[1][3]);

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Like Java, somewhat like C

Type conversions
but you can typecast from any type to any type
c = (char) some_int;

So be careful !

Arrays
Always initialize before use
int number[12]; printf(%d, number[20]);

produces undefined output, may terminate, may not even be detected.

Strings are terminated by \0 character

char name[6] = {C,S,4,1,4,\0}; /* \0= end of string */ printf(%s, name); /* print until \0 */ 35

Memory layout and addresses

int x = 5, y = 10; float f = 12.5, g = 9.8; char c = c, d = d;

10

12.5

9. 8

4300

4304

4308

4312

4316 4317

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Pointers made easy - 1

Pointer = variable containing address of another variable
float f; float *f_addr; f /* data variable */ /* pointer variable */

f_addr

any float ? any address

? 4300

? 4304

f_addr = &f; /* & = address operator */ f f_addr

? 4300

4300 4304
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Pointers made easy - 2

*f_addr = 3.2; f /* indirection operator */ f_addr

3.2 4300

4300 4304

float g=*f_addr; /* indirection:g is now 3.2 */ f = 1.3; f f_addr

1.3 4300

4300 4304
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Pointer Example
#include <stdio.h>

void main(void) { int j; int *ptr;

ptr=&j; /* initialize ptr before using it */ /* *ptr=4 does NOT initialize ptr */ /* j <- 4 */ /* j <- ??? */

*ptr=4; j=*ptr; }

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Dynamic Memory allocation

Explicit allocation and de-allocation
#include <stdio.h> void main(void) { int *ptr; /* allocate space to hold an int */ ptr = malloc(sizeof(int)); /* do stuff with the space */ *ptr=4; free(ptr); /* free up the allocated space */ }

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Elementary file handling

#include <stdio.h>
void main(void) { /* file handles */ FILE *input_file=NULL; /* open files for writing*/ input_file = fopen(cwork.dat, w); if(input_file == NULL) exit(1); /* need to do explicit ERROR CHECKING */ /* write some data into the file */ fprintf(input_file, Hello there);

/* dont forget to close file handles */ fclose(input_file);

return; }
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Error Handling
Moral from example:
unlike Java, no explicit exceptions need to manually check for errors
Whenever using a function youve not written Anywhere else errors might occur

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Functions - why and how ?

If a program is too long Modularization easier to code debug Code reuse Passing arguments to functions
By value By reference

Returning values from functions

By value By reference

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Functions basic example

#include <stdio.h> int sum(int a, int b); /* function prototype at start of file */ void main(void){ int total = sum(4,5); /* call to the function */ printf(The sum of 4 and 5 is %d, total); } int sum(int a, int b){ return (a+b); }
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/* the function itself - arguments passed by value*/ /* return by value */

Arguments by reference
#include <stdio.h> int sum(int *pa, int *pb); /* function prototype at start of file */ void main(void){ int a=4, b=5; int *ptr = &b; int total = sum(&a,ptr); /* call to the function */ printf(The sum of 4 and 5 is %d, total); } int sum(int *pa, int *pb){ /* the function itself - arguments passed by reference */ return (*pa+*pb); /* return by value */ } 45

Why pointer arguments?!

#include <stdio.h> void swap(int, int); main() { int num1 = 5, num2 = 10; swap(num1, num2); printf(num1 = %d and num2 = %d\n, num1, num2); } void swap(int n1, int n2) { /* passed by value */ int temp;

temp = n1; n1 = n2; n2 = temp;

}
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Why pointer arguments? This is why

#include <stdio.h> void swap(int *, int *); main() { int num1 = 5, num2 = 10; swap(&num1, &num2); printf(num1 = %d and num2 = %d\n, num1, num2); } void swap(int *n1, int *n2) { /* passed and returned by reference */ int temp; temp = *n1; *n1 = *n2; *n2 = temp; }
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Whats wrong with this ?

#include <stdio.h> void dosomething(int *ptr); main() { int *p; dosomething(p) printf(%d, *p); }

/* will this work ? */

void dosomething(int *ptr){ /* passed and returned by reference */ int temp=32+12; ptr = &(temp); } /* compiles correctly, but gives run-time error */
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Passing and returning arrays

#include <stdio.h> void init_array(int array[], int size) ; void main(void) { int list[5]; init_array(list, 5); for (i = 0; i < 5; i++) printf(next:%d, array[i]); } void init_array(int array[], int size) { /* why size ? */ /* arrays ALWAYS passed by reference */ int i; for (i = 0; i < size; i++) array[i] = 0; } 49

Memory layout of programs

0

Header info
100 Code 400

all malloc()s
560

Data - Heap

Dynamic memory

1010 all normal vars 1200

Data - stack

Local memory + function call stack

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Program with multiple files

#include <stdio.h> #include mypgm.h void main(void) { myproc(); } #include <stdio.h> #include mypgm.h void myproc(void) { mydata=2; . . . /* some code */ }

hw.c

mypgm.c
void myproc(void); int mydata;

Library headers
Standard User-defined

mypgm.h

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Externs
#include <stdio.h> extern char user2line [20]; char user1line[30]; void dummy(void); void main(void) { char user1line[20]; . . . } /* global variable defined in another file */ /* global for this file */

/* different from earlier user1line[30] */ /* restricted to this func */

void dummy(){ extern char user1line[]; . . . }

/* the global user1line[30] */

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Structures
Equivalent of Javas classes with only data (no methods)
#include <stdio.h> struct birthday{ int month; int day; int year; }; main() { struct birthday mybday; /* - no new needed ! */ /* then, its just like Java ! */ mybday.day=1; mybday.month=1; mybday.year=1977; printf(I was born on %d/%d/%d, birth.day, birth.month, birth.year); } 53

More on Structures
struct person{ char name[41]; int age; float height; struct { int month; int day; int year; } birth; }; struct person me; me.birth.year=1977; struct person class[60]; /* array of info about everyone in class */ class[0].name=Gun; class[0].birth.year=1971;
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/* embedded structure */

Passing/Returning a structure
/* pass struct by value */ void display_year_1(struct birthday mybday) { printf(I was born in %d\n, mybday.year); } /* - inefficient: why ? */ . . . . /* pass struct by reference */ void display_year_2(struct birthday *pmybday) { printf(I was born in %d\n, pmybday->year); /* warning ! ->, not ., after a struct pointer*/ } . . . . /* return struct by value */ struct birthday get_bday(void){ struct birthday newbday; newbday.year=1971; /* . after a struct */ return newbday; } /* - also inefficient: why ? */
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enum - enumerated data types

#include <stdio.h> enum month{ JANUARY, FEBRUARY, MARCH }; /* like #define JANUARY 0 */ /* like #define FEBRUARY 1 */ /* */

/* JANUARY is the same as month.JANUARY */ /* alternatively, . */ enum month{ JANUARY=1, FEBRUARY, MARCH };

/* like #define JANUARY 1 */ /* like #define FEBRUARY 2 */ /* */

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Synonym for a data type

typedef int Employees; Employees my_company; /* same as int my_company; */

typedef struct person Person; Person me; /* same as struct person me; */

typedef struct person *Personptr; Personptr ptrtome; /* same as struct person *ptrtome;*/

Easier to remember Clean code

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More pointers
int month[12]; /* month is a pointer to base address 430*/ month[3] = 7; /* month address + 3 * int elements => int at address (430+3*4) is now 7 */

ptr = month + 2; /* ptr points to month[2], => ptr is now (430+2 * int elements)= 438 */ ptr[5] = 12; /* ptr address + 5 int elements => int at address (434+5*4) is now 12. Thus, month[7] is now 12 */ ptr++; /* ptr <- 438 + 1 * size of int = 442 */ (ptr + 4)[2] = 12; /* accessing ptr[6] i.e., array[9] */

Now , month[6], *(month+6), (month+4)[2], ptr[3], *(ptr+3) are all the same integer variable.

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2-D arrays
2-dimensional array
int weekends[52][2];

[0][0]

[0][1]

[1][0]

[1][1]

[2][0]

[2][1]

[3][0]

. . .

weekends

weekends[2][1] is same as *(weekends+2*2+1) NOT *weekends+2*2+1 :this is an int !

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Pointer Example - argc and argv parameters

#include <stdio.h> /* program called with cmd line parameters */ void main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int ctr; for (ctr = 0; ctr < argc; ctr = ctr + 1) { printf(Argument #%d is -> |%s|\n, ctr, argv[ctr]); } /* ex., argv[0] == the name of the program */ }

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Strings
#include <stdio.h> main() char char char { msg[10]; /* array of 10 chars */ *p; /* pointer to a char */ msg2[]=Hello; /* msg2 = Hello\0 */

msg = Bonjour; /* ERROR. msg has a const address.*/ p = Bonjour; /* address of Bonjour goes into p */ msg = p; /* ERROR. Message has a constant address. */ /* cannot change it. */ p = msg; /* OK */ p[0] = H, p[1] = i,p[2]=\0; /* *p and msg are now Hi */

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Pointer to function

int int int int

func(); /*function returning integer*/ *func(); /*function returning pointer to integer*/ (*func)(); /*pointer to function returning integer*/ *(*func)(); /*pointer to func returning ptr to int*/

Advantage ? more flexibility

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Pointer to function - Example

#include <stdio.h> void myproc (int d); void mycaller(void (* f)(int), int param); void main(void) { myproc(10); /* call myproc with parameter 10*/ mycaller(myproc, 10); /* and do the same again ! */ } void mycaller(void (* f)(int), int param){ (*f)(param); /* call function *f with param */ } void myproc (int d){ . . . }

/* do something with d */
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Doing more complicated things

To declare an array of N pointers to functions returning pointers to functions returning pointers to characters 1. char *(*(*a[N])())(); 2. Build the declaration up in stages, using typedefs: typedef char *pc; /* pointer to char */ typedef pc fpc(); /* function returning pointer to char */ typedef fpc *pfpc; /* pointer to above */ typedef pfpc fpfpc(); /* function returning... */ typedef fpfpc *pfpfpc; /* pointer to... */ pfpfpc a[N]; /* array of... */

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Before you go onto Objective-C

Always initialize anything before using it (especially pointers) Dont use pointers after freeing them Dont return a functions local variables by reference No exceptions so check for errors everywhere An array is also a pointer, but its value is immutable.

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References
Cox, Brad. Object Oriented Programming: an Evolutioary Approach Sebesta, Robert. Concepts of Programming Languages Apple Inc. Apple Developer Connection
http://developer.apple.com

Stevenson, Scott. Theocacao

http://theocacao.com/document.page/510

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