Dr. B. S.

SARMA
Overview
 semi-discretization

-Variational Equations of Linear Solid Mechanics

 Finite Element Discretization

 Analytical Solution Procedures

-Modal Superposition Method

-Eigen value economizer Method
-Free Response , Damped Eigen values
 Forced Periodic Response

 Transient Response

-Frequency Response Method

-Modal Decomposition Method
 With FEM, many dynamic and nonlinear numerical simulations
are now possible within the realm of engineering analysis and
considerable effort has been directed towards the area of structural
dynamics.
 The most common approach to structural dynamics is the one in
which the spatial and temporal solutions are performed
independently. This is called SEMI-DISCRETIZATION.
 The governing partial differential equations are first discretized in
space yielding a coupled system of ordinary differential equations
in time which are solved using various integration methods.
 Finite Element Method is an example of SEMI-
DISCRETIZATION approach for a multi-dimensional linear
continuum.
 In the FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION, one starts
with the equation of a continuum and their variational
forms and use the finite element method to construct the
discrete equations of motion.

 The continuum formulation can be extended to include

structural mechanics theories such as Beams, Plates and
Shells.
 In the analysis of small deformations of a solid continuum, the
governing equations are obtained from the MOMENTUM
CONSERVATION LAW and they are referred to as EQUATIONS
OF MOTION. In the absence of body forces they are written as
τij,j = ρüi in Ω (1)
τij is the stress tensor
ρ is the density
u is the displacement
and Ω represents the continuum domain.
 The INFINITESIMAL STRAIN is related to displacements
by
εij = ½ (ui,j + u j,i ) (2)

 The constitutive law relating stress to strain for elastic material

is given by
τij = Cijkl εkl (3)
where Cijkl is the elastic tensor.

 The continuum has a boundary Γ which can be divided into

Γu where displacements are prescribed and
Γτ where stresses are prescribed.
These boundary conditions are written as
ui = ui on Γu and τij nj = τi on Γτ
* *
(4)
 In addition we have initial conditions
u = u and ů = ů
i(0) 0i i(0) 0i (5)

 Equations (1) (4) and (5) represent the strong form of the
initial/ boundary value problem of Elasto-Dynamics.

 To facilitate the finite element discretization, the weak

form of the Variational statement corresponding to these
equations is needed.
 Let a test function w be defined such that it is a function of space
only and is identically zero on the boundary Γu. Then the
variational statement is as follows:
Given the prescribed tractions τi* , initial displacements uoi and
velocity ůoi , find ui (t) such that for all wi

int ext
M (w,u) + F (w,u) = F (w, τ) (6)

Where M(w,u) = ∫Ω wi ρ üi dΩ (7)

int
F = ∫Ω wi,j τij dΩ (8)

ext
F = ∫Ω wi τi* dΩ (9)
 Equations (7) to (9) correspond to the work done by the inertial,
internal and external forces respectively.

 It is assumed that ui is chosen such that the essential boundary

conditions are exactly satisfied.

 For a linear elastic case equation (8) can alternatively be written by

using the equation (3) and the symmetry of the stress tensor as

int
F = ∫Ωw(i,j) Cijkl u(k,l) dΩ (10)
 In Finite element semi-discretization, the domain Ω is subdivided
into elements Ωe
 The displacement field in each element is approximated by
ui(x,t) = NI (x) diI (t) (11)
where
the shape function NI (x) are functions of space alone and
diI (t) include the time dependence.
 Introducing eqn.(11) in matrix form
u = N de (12)
where de are the displacements local to element e.

 The discrete matrix form of the gradient u (i,j) can then be written
as
s u = B d e (13)
where B contains the appropriate derivatives of Ni
Considering that the same shape functions are used for both ui and
wi( as in the Galerkin approximation), the semi-discretization of eqn
(6) yields
int ext
δd (M
T
+F -F ) = 0 (14)
where δd is a vector of nodal parameters resulting from the
interpolation.
Global mass matrix M; internal force vector Fint ; external force vector
F ext and nodal displacement vector d are assembled from element
contributions where
e e
M =AM (15)
int e int .e
F =A F (16)
ext e ext.e
F =A F (17)
e e
d = Ad (18)
 The element matrices are defined using Eqns.(11), (12) and (13)to be
e
Me = [ M ijIJ] = ∫Ωe δij Ni ρ Nj dΩ (19)
int,e
F = ∫Ωe Bt τ dΩ (20)
ext,e ext,e
F = {FiI } = > ∫Γeτ Ni τ*i dΓ (21)
 Since Eqn. (14) must hold for any δd, the equation of motion becomes
int ext
M +F = F (22)
 For a linear elastic material, the equation of motion can alternatively
be written by using Eqn (10) as
ext
M + Kd = F (23)
where K is the global stiffness matrix assembled from element
e e
contribution i .e, K = AK (24)

and K = ∫Ωe Bt DB dΩ (25)

 To include viscous damping in a consistent manner one can consider
damping matrices of the form (Rayleigh’s Damping )
C = aM + bK
where the coefficients ‘a’ and ‘b’ control the amount of damping
proportionality with mass and stiffness respectively ‘a’ and ‘b’ are
determined experimentally.
 Now the damped equation of motion is given by
ext
M + C + Kd =F (27)
 To account for mass proportional damping effect, Eqn (1) to be
replaced by τij,j = ρüi + aρů in Ω (28)
and for the stiffness proportional damping, Eqn (3) is to be augmented
as τij = Cijkl (εkl + b ůck,l) (29)
 Since M and C are derived from a variational form,they are referred to
 CONSISTENT AND LUMPED MASS MODELS
 Consistent Mass Matrices obtained from Eqns.(15) and (19)are one
form of mass matrices used in current FE S/W packages.
 In the context of Direct Time integration solutions Lumped Mass
matrices are often considered. They are diagonal matrices with off-
diagonal terms as zeros.
 Another alternative is the so called higher order matrices which
are a combination of both consistent and lumped matrices.
 Implicit methods can operate on larger time steps but require the
solution of equations at each time step. Consistent mass matrices have
the same sparcity and bandwidth as that of the stiffness matrix. So the
computational work required for the solution is the same for
consistent or lumped matrices.
 Explicit time integration schemes require a diagonal mass matrix to be
truly explicit. Therefore lumped mass models are used.
MASS LUMPING SCHEMES
 For Low order elements in continuous formulation the simplest procedure is to
assign an equal fraction of total mass of each element to each node.
Me = [ MeijIJ ] = δij δIJ / nen ∫ e ρ dΩ
Ω

where nen is the number of nodes per element.

 Another simple procedure
n is the row sum technique
en

[ MeijIJ ] = Σ
J=1 M ijIJ
e

The same can be written for continuum elements as

[ MeijIJ ] = δij ∫ e ρNI dΩ

n Ω
en
 The above lumped mass scheme conserves mass in that

Σ MeijIJ = δij ρ Ωe
J=1
 For higher order elements nodal wuadrature method is normally
employed. Here the quadrature points coincides with the nodes
resulting in a lumped mass.
 Labatto Quadrature rules such as Trapezoidal rule and Simpsons
rule are used to diagonalize the mass amtrex.
 By definition of shape functions, Numerical quadrature finally
becomes
[ MeijIJ ] = δij ρ (ξ1)J(ξ1)wi
 A draw back of nodal quadrature is that, in some cases, zero or
negative masses are obtained.
 A Scheme that always results in positive lumped masses suggested
is
[ MeijIJ ] = α δij ∫ ρNi2 dΩ
Ω

Where α is so chosen that the total element mass is conserved.

 ANALYTICAL SOLUTION PROCEDURES

As a result of semi-discretization, many time – dependent problems
can be reduced to a system of ordinary differential equations of the
characteristic form given by
ext
M + C + Kd = F (30)
 Systems of linear ordinary differential equations with constant
coefficients can always be solved in principle analytically without the
introduction of additional approximations.

 Here we shall deal with

ext
a. Determination of free vibration response (i.e F (t)=0)
ext
b. Determination of periodic response (i.e (i.e F (t) is periodic)
ext
c. Determination of transient response (i.e (i.e F (t) is arbitrary)

 In the first two cases, initial conditions of the systems are of no

importance and a general solution is sought.
 MODAL ANALYSIS
 Regardless of the type of structure analyzed or semi-discretization
method used, Eqn (30) represents a standard form of the discrete
equation of motion for linear structural dynamics

 The coupled system of ordinary differential equations possesses

certain attributes such as M, C, K are symmetric and M as positive
definite and K are semi-definite matrices.

 Two Techniques to solve these equations, for the given initial

conditions are

* Direct Time Integration and Modal Superposition

 In Direct Time Integration, the solution is marched through time

step by step starting with the initial conditions and progressing to
find the final solution.
 With Modal Superposition, the solution for all time is obtained
simultaneously by a superposition of contributions from the
natural modes of the system.

 Modal Analysis is a procedure to transform the coupled system of

ordinary differential equations described by Eqn (27) into a set of
uncoupled equations representing the natural modes of the system.

 Basic understanding of Modal Analysis is essential even if Direct

Time Integration is used as a solution scheme.
THE MODAL SUPERPOSITION METHOD
 Consider the homogeneous, undamped equation of motion
M + kd = 0 (31)
Assume possible solutions to Eqn (31) of the form
d (t) = Φ sin( ωt + θ) (32)
where ω is the natural frequency and θ is a constant phase angle

 Differentiating Eqn (32) approximately and substituting it into Eqn

(31), we get
(K Φ - ω2M Φ) sin ( ωt + θ) = 0 (33)

i.e [K – ω2M] Φ = 0 (34)

 This is an Eigen value problem and its non- trivial solution exists if
Det |(K-ω2M)| = 0 (35)
 When expanded out, Eqn (35) becomes an neqth degree algebraic
equation called the characteristic equation.
The neq roots of this equation are ω1,2ω22ω32 . . . ωn2 and these
frequencies are generally placed in the order
ω12 < ω22 <ω32 …. ωn2

 For each ωr there exists a solution to Eqn (35) as Φr . The vector

is called the mode shape for mode r

 For convenience, Φ is normalized with respect to the mass matrix

T
Φr M Φr = 1 (36)
T
Pre multiplying Eqn(34) by Φr we have for the rth mode
T 2
Φr KΦr = ω r (37)
 From the property of modal orthogonality, we have
T
Φr M Φs = 0 for r ≠ s (38)
T
Φr K Φs = 0 for r ≠ s (39)
 To prove the above statements, we can write, from Eqn (34) for
any mode
ωr2 MΦr = K Φr (39a)
ωs2 MΦs = K Φs (39b)

T T
 Pre-multiplying the first by Φs and the second by Φr and then
subtracting, we get (Noting that M is symmetry)
2 2 T
(ωr - ωs )(Φr M Φs) = 0 (39c)
 And if ωr ≠ ωs, the orthogonality condition for matrix M is
proved. Immediately from this, orthogonality of the matrix K
follows.
 Finally the modal matrix Φ defined as
Φ = [Φ1, Φ2, Φ3, Φ4.. Φn eq] (40)
 The coupled system of equations can now be transformed to a set
of uncoupled equations of modal components,

 Expanding the solution d(t) as the sum

d(t) = Φ1Z1(t) + Φ2Z2(t) + … Φn eqZ n eq(t) = Φ Z(t) (41)

 where z(t) are the normal coordinates that incorporate the time
dependence.

 Substituting Eqn (41) into the Eqn (23) and pre-multiplying by

T
Φr , we have representing each mode of vibration

T T T ext
Φr M Φ Z”(t) + Φr K Φ Z(t) = Φr F (42)
 Using orthogonality conditions Eqn (38,39) and definitions of
Eqn(36,37) on Eqn (42), we obtain the uncoupled set of ordinary
differential equations in time

Z”(t) + ω r2 Zr(t) = Fr for r = 1,2,3….. n eqns (43)

where Fr = ΦrT Fext (44)

 In the modal superposition method, the global system of Eqns (23) is
transformed into the set of single degree of freedom problems (43) by
the normal coordination transformation.
 Each of the single degree of freedom problems is solved using a
suitable transformation of initial conditions.
 Finally the solution in physical coordinates is found by the normal
coordinate transformation which is a superposition of various modal
equations.
 If Rayleigh damping Eqn (26) is used, the same normal mode
coordinate transformation may be applied to Eqn (27) to obtain a
set of damped single degree of freedom equations of he form

Zr”(t) + 2 ζr ωr Zr’(t) + ωr2 Zr(t) = fr , for r =1,2,3…n eq (45)

 The modal fraction of critical damping ζr is determined by the

mass and stiffness proportionality coefficients a, b and ωr by the
relation
ζr = (a/ ωr + b ωr)/2 (46)
EIGEN VALUE ECONOMIZER METHOD:

 Computer effort of determining the Eigen values and Eigen

vectors is larger by an order of magnitude than the solution of an
equivalent static problem.

 Fortunately, reasonably good Eigen values can be determined with

fewer degrees of freedom than needed for static solutions.

 If a rather fine sub-division is used in the dynamic analysis, a

number of degrees of freedom can be eliminated and the mass and
damping effects can be lumped at a reduced number ofnodal
parameter.
[similar to the sub-structure analysis used in static problems]
 Let the nodal vector d be divided into two parts
s

d= { d }
m
(47)
d
Assume that the displacements ds depend in some unique
way on the displacement dm. i.e ds is called master and dm
is called slave variables.
If dm = T ds (48)
We have
I
d = [ T ] dm => T* dm (49)

Where T is the matrix specifying the dependence.

Now the dynamic equation of the whole system
M + kd = 0 (50)
can be reduced by applying the constraint on the
deformation freedom implied in Eq (49)
 Pre-multiplying Eqn (50) by T*T (principles of transformation) after
substituting in Eqn (49), we get
m
M* + K* dm = 0
Where K = T*T K T and M* = T*T M T (51)
Eqn (51) involves smaller number of variables.

 How to determine the relationship between the slave and the

master deflections:-
- It is reasonable to assume that the general pattern of
deformation will follow that which would be obtained by
imposing displacements dm on an otherwise unloaded structure in
static condition.
- Thus partitioning with = = 0, the standard equation can
be written asKss Ksm ds 0
Kd = [ Ksm Kmm ] { dm } = { fm } (52)
 As the slave loads are unloaded, we can get
Kss ds + Ksm dm = 0 (53)
or, ds = - Kss -1 Ksm dm
i.e T = - Kss -1Ksm (54)

 The best choice of the master nodes

- The obvious choice is to eliminate first the nodes with little or no
mass attached.
- In an automatic procedure, the ratio of diagonal stiffness and
mass terms be first calculated (kii / Mii) and the nodes with the
largest values of this ratio be first eliminated .
-One drawback of the condensation is that the mass matrix in the
reduced problem is never diagonal .
FREE RESPONSE, DAMPED EIGENVALUES:

For Free vibration conditions, the standard equation (27) is

written as
M +c + K= 0 (55)
άt
And substituting d= Φ e
The characteristic equation becomes
2
[(α M + α C + K) {Φ }] = 0 (56)
Where α and Φ in general are found to be complex
FORCED PERIODIC RESPONSE
 If the forcing term in the standard equation (30) is periodic or
more generally if we can express it as
f = fe- αt
(57)
Then a general solution can be written as
αt
d = Φe (58)
Where d is a complex value ( i.e α = α1 + i α2 )

 - (30), we get
Substituting the above equation in Eqn
[α2 M + α c + k ]Φ => D Φ= - f (59)
 It is no longer an Eigen value problem. But it can be solved by
inverting the matrix D i.e
-1
Φ = -D f (60)
 Eqn(60) is precisely of the same form as that used for static
problems. But, now it has to be determined in terms of complex
quantities.
 The computation can be arranged directly, noting that
αt αt
e- = e- (cos- α2t + i sin α2t)
f = f1 + if2 (61)
Φ = Φ1 + i Φ2
in which α1 , α 2 , f 1 , f 2 , Φ1, Φ2 are real quantities
 Inserting the above quantities
((α 2 –α 2 )M + α C +K)
in equation (59) Φ1
(-2α α M -α c) f1
1 2 1 1 2 1

(2α1α2 M + α2C) ((α12 – α22 )M + α1C + K ) Φ2

[ ] { } = -{ f2 } 62)

 Eqn(62) form a system in which all quantities are real and from
which the response to any periodic input can be obtained by the
direct solution.
 The system is no longer positive definite (It is skew symmetric)
 With periodic Inputs , the solution after an initial transient is not
sensitive to the initial conditions and this guessed solution
represents the final solution.
 It is valid for problems of dynamic structural response
TRANSIENT RESPONSE BY ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES

 Steady state general solutions neither took care of any account of

initial conditions nor of the non-periodic form of the forcing terms

 The response of dynamic system taking these features requires

either a full-time discretization or special analytical procedures.

 Two broad possibilites include

* FREQUENCY RESPONSE PROCEDURE
* THE MODAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
FREQUENCY RESPONSE PROCEDURE
 The response of the system to any forcing terms of the general
periodic type or in particular, to a periodic forcing function
-
f = f eiωt was already discussed.
As a completely arbitrary forcing function can be represented by
a Fourier series m
f(t) = f0 + Σi=1
(am cos ωmt + bm sinm ωmt)
or in the limit exactly as Fourier Integral, the response to such an
input can be obtained by a synthesis of a curve representing the
response of any quantity. e.g: Displacement at a particular point
to all frequencies ranging from zero to infinity.
 In fact only a limited number of such forcing frequencies need to
be considered and the results can be efficiently synthesized by fast
Fourier transform techniques
 The technique of frequency response is adapted to problems where
damping matrix C is of an arbitrary specified form.
 MODAL DECOMPOSTION ANALYSIS
 This procedure is the most important and is widely used in
practice. It provides insight into the behavior of the whole system,
where strictly numerical procedures are used.
 Starting with general problem of equation(2 7) i.e
M + C + Kd = F(t) (64)
where f(t) is an arbitrary function of time.
 The general solution for the free
m
response is of the form
αt αit
d = Φ e i.e Σi=1Φi e (65)
Where di are the Eigen values and Φi are Eigen vectors.
 For Forced response, assume that the solution can be written in a
linear combination of modes as
d = Σ Φi yi = [ Φ1 Φ2 Φ3 … Φn] y (66)
Where the scalar mode participation factor Y(t) is a
function of
 Such an assumed solution clearly gives the proportions of each
mode occurring in the response. This assumption does not present
any restriction since all the modes are linearly independent vectors
 Substituting Eqn (66) into equation(64) and pre-multiplying the
result by Φit (i = 1,2,3,4.. n), then the resulting equations are
simply a set of scalar independent equations.
miy”i + Ciy’ + ki yi = fi (67)
mi = Φit M Φi => 1 (if modes normalized)
Ci = Φit C Φi ; Ki = Φit C Φi and fi = Φit f(t).
As for true Eigen values Φi
Φit MΦj = Φit C Φj = Φit K Φj = 0
(68)
Each scalar equation of eqn (67) can be solved by usual
 Assuming that the modes have been normalized so that mi = 1,
the eqn (66) can be written in a standard form as of second degree:

y” + 2ωci ’ yi’ + ωi2 yi = fi (69)

The general solution can be of the form

-c ’ωi (t- τ)
yi = ∫ fi e sin ωi(t-τ) dτ (70)

Such integration can be carried out numerically and the modal

response is obtained.
 In principle, superposition will result in the full transient response.

 Often a single calculation is carried out for each mode to

determine the maximum responses and a suitable addition of these
results is used as a standard procedure.
Thank You