CHEM-111

General Chemistry Unit four

Chemical Bonds
by

CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT
1

CHEMICAL BONDS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Valence electrons Electron dot structures Molecules and Ions Formation of Ions Ionic bonds and Ionic compounds Covalent bonds and molecular compounds Coordinate Covalent bonds Bond polarity Attraction between molecules Shapes of molecules
2

Chemical Bonding
Classification

Intramoleculr bonding
Force of attraction within the molecule determine Chemical properties

Intermolecular bonding
Force of attraction between two or more molecules determine Physical properties

Ionic Bonds
Bonds are formed between ions

Covalent Bonds
Bonds are formed between Nonmetals

i. Dipole-Dipole attraction ii. Hydrogen Bonding iii.London Forces

3

Nonpolar

Polar

I- Intramolecular Chemical Bonding

I- Intramolecular Chemical Bonding

Intramolecular chemical bonding refers to the attractive forces that holds the atoms together to form a molecule H2, O2, CH4 NaCl, MgCl2 etc.

Major classes

I) Ionic bonds II) Covalent bonds

5

Reason for Intramolecular Chemical Bonding

Because All atoms would like to attain (reach) stable electron configurations like noble gases by: losing electrons or sharing electrons or gaining electrons. For a stable configuration each atom must fill its outer energy level: 1st : 2 electrons 2nd : 8 electrons 3rd : 8 electrons 4th : 8 electrons

Valence Electrons
The electrons in outer shell are called valence electrons. These electrons are very influential (important) as they determine chemical properties of the elements. For representative elements, the number of valence electrons in an atom is equal to the group number.

Li
Group Number

C
4A

S
6A
7

IA

Core Electrons
.

Electrons present in shells below the outer shell are called core electrons

Valence electrons Core electrons

Group Number and Arrangement of Valence Electrons

Group Selected Number Elements 1A 2A 3A Li Ca Al Electron Number of Electron-Dot Arrangement Valence Electrons Structure 2-1 2-8-2 2-8-3 1 2 3

Li
Ca

Al

4A
5A 6A 7A 8A

C
N S Cl Ne

2-4
2-5 2-8-6 2-8-7 2-8

4
5 6 7 8

S
Cl

Ne
9

I-INTRAMOLECULAR BONDING
1- IONIC BONDS

10

Types of intramolecular Bonding I-Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonds are formed due to the transfer of electrons from one atom (metal) to another atom (nonmetal) to give oppositely charged particles called ions to attain a noble gas arrangement.

Electrically charged atoms or groups of atoms are called ions. They are very reactive species H+ , Li+, OH- , Br- etc
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Types of ions
1- Positive Ions (Cations)
Positively charged ions: H+, Na+, K+, Ca+ They are formed by loss of an electron (size of cation is smaller than atom BECAUSE A CATION LOSES A SHELL).

2-Negative Ions ( Anions )

Negatively charged ions: Cl- , OH- , IThey are formed by gain of an electron (size of anion is bigger than corresponding atom because entering electron and electrons already present, repel each other and shell get enlarged). 12

To form an ion, an element has to lose or gain electrons and form stable full outer shell of a noble gas
Electronic configuration of lithium, carbon and fluorine

Which elements form ions?

Lithium
Atomic number 3

Carbon
Atomic number 6

Fluorine
Atomic number 9

Electronic configuration 2,1

Electronic configuration 2,4

Electronic configuration 2,7

All metals can Some non metals Many non metals lose electrons with partly filled can gain electrons to to form positively electrons shell form negatively charged ions do not form ions charged ions

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Ions formed by the representative elements

Group Number

IA Li+ Na+ K+ Rb+

IIA Be2+

IIIA

IVA C4Si4-

VA N3P3-

VIA VIIA O2S2Se2Te2FClBrI-

Mg2 + Al3+ Ca2+ Sr2+

Cs+

Ba2+
14

Ions formed by the Representative Elements

Charge Element

Cation A positive ion produced by loss of one or more electrons from metal atom. Li+, Na+ ,K+ , Mg2+,Ca2+ , Al3+, etc. A negative ion formed by gain of one or more electrons by non metal. F1- ,Cl1- , O2- , N3-, C4- etc

Anion

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Ionic Bonding and Octet Rule

Atoms try to get 8 electrons in the valence shell (octet rule)

Atoms that have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer levels will tend to gain electrons from atoms with 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer levels Atoms that have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer levels will tend to lose them in interactions with atoms that have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer levels.

Ionic bonds are formed between a metal and a non-metal. Bonding occurs using valence electrons.
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Na atom looses an electron and forms Na+ ion. Cl atom gains an electron and forms Cl- ion.
Na Na+ + e cations

Formation of sodium chloride or common salt

Cl + e

Cl

anions + Na

Cl

+ Na

Cl

NaCl (Ionic compound)

Oppositely Charged ions, Na+ and Cl- attract each other and 17 form ionic compound, NaCl.

Ionic Giant Molecule of NaCl

Ionic bond is the attraction between cations and anions Na+ and Cl- ions are stacked together Lowest energy arrangement The pattern is repeated throughout the crystal or Lattice
Cl Na Cl Na Cl Na Na Cl Na Cl Cl Na Cl Na Cl Cl Na Cl Na Cl Na Na Cl Na Cl Cl Cl Na Cl Na Na Cl Na Cl Cl Na Cl Na Na Cl Cl Na Na Cl Na Cl Na

Electrons transfered Na + Cl Cl from atoms A to atoms B Atoms A Atoms B Many atoms

Na Cl Na Cl Cl Na Cl Na Cl Na Cl Na Na Cl Cl Na

Ionic Giant Molecule

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Formation of Magnesium chloride MgCl2

Cl
Mg Mg 2+

Cl

Cl

One Magnesium ion Mg2+

Cl

Loses 2e- Each gains 1e-

Two
Chloride ions 2Cl-

Magnesium and Chloride ions Combine to form MgCl2 (Magnesium chloride)

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Lewis structure
Lewis symbols help us to find the valence electrons and predicts bond

.. . . Na + :Cl ..

Na+

.. :Cl: ..

Sodium chloride

. .. . Mg . + 2:Cl ..

2+ Mg

.. :Cl: .. 2
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Magnesium chloride

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUND

a. They have high melting and boiling points due to presence of strong intermolecular force of attraction. b. They are non-volatile: they do not easily turn into gas. c. Generally soluble in water because they generally ionize in water. d. Solids do not conduct electricity because the ions are held together by strong electrostatic force of attraction. e. Conduct electricity when melted. f. Aqueous solution conducts electricity because the ions are mobile in solutions. g. They are generally insoluble in organic solvents, because organic solvents are covalent compounds. 21

Why Ionic Bond are Formed?

Reasons 1.Stability of noble Gases
The noble gases are known for their chemical stability and existence as mono atomic molecules as they contain 8 electrons in outer most shell (valence shell) except Helium
Nobel gases
Valence electrons Period no. No. of shells

He
2 1 1

Ne
8 2 2

Ar
8 3 3

Kr
8 4 4

Xe
8 5 5

Rn
8 6 6

Other atoms also want electronic configurations just like noble gases (concept of duplet & octet rules) due to their Stability so they form ionic bond
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IA
1

1
2 3 4 5 6 7
1 3

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

IIA
4 9 12

VIIIA

METAL METALLOID NON METAL

IIIB IVB VB
21 22 23 45 39 48 40 51 41 93 73

7 11

Li Be
24 20

C SOLID Hg LIQUID
H GAS
VIIIB
IB
28 29 59 46 27 30

IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA 4

5 11 13

He

Na Mg
40 38

23 19

VIB VIIB
24 25 26

IIB 27

Al Si P
28 32 31 33 73 50 75 51

12 14

C 14N
15

8 16 16 32 34

Ne O 19 F 20

10

S Cl Ar
35.5 40 35 36 80 53 84 54

17

18

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
52 42 55 43

31

39 37

56 44
101 76

85.5 55 56 133 87

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te 88
89 71 91 72 96 74 (98) 75 186 107 103 77 106 78 108 79 112 80 115 81 119 82 122 83 128 84 137 88 175 103 178.5 181 104 105 184 106 190 108 192 109 195 110 197 111 201 112 204 113 207 114 209 116

59 45

63.5 65 47 48

70 49

79 52

127 85

I Xe
131 86

Po At Rn Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi (209) (210) (222)

Uuh
(289) 68 167 100 69 169 101 70 173 102 (260) (261) (262) (263) (262) (265) (266) (269) (272) (277) 57 138 89 58 140 90 59 141 91 60 144 92 61 62 63 152 95 64 157 96 65 159 97 (289) 67

(223) 226

Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub Uut Uuq

66

6 C 12

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
(145) 150 93 94 237 162.5 165 98 99 232 231 (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259)

227

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cy Es Fm Md No 23 238

Why Ionic Bond are Formed? 2.Change in Potential Energy

Potential energy (k/mol)
0

.. (d)
(b)
75pm

(a)

-436

. . .
75

(c)

Distance between hydrogen nuclei (pm)

Formation of ionic compound must be exothermic i.e. P.E of ionic compound (product) is less than reactants atoms. 24

Simple Binary (double) Compounds of Metals and a Nonmetals One element is metal and the other is a non-metal The metal (+ve) is name first, followed by the nonmetal (-ve) Only two different elements are present Number of each is given as a subscript Overall formula must have no Charge Examples:
NaCl SrO Al2S3 metal nonmetal Sodium chloride Strontium oxide Aluminum sulfide

Binary compounds= Compound composed of two different elements

In ionic compounds one is metal and the other is non25 metal.

IUPAC Methods of Naming

Naming ionic compounds

Firstly, Name the cation (metal) When an element has only one charged state Secondly, Name the anion (nonmetal) using the ending (-ide)
Examples

CrCl3 MgBr2 Al2O3 K3N

Chromic chloride, Magnesium bromide, Aluminum oxide, Potassium nitride,

MgS Magnesium sulfide Ca2C Calcium carbide SrO Strontium oxide

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Naming of Ionic Compounds

Simple short cut can be used to obtain the formula of an ionic compound by exchanging superscript for subscript

+ 3 Al

O2

Ca 2 +

PO43 -

Al 2O 3
Some simple ions Cations Anions Na+ Cl-

Ca3(PO4)2
Mg2+ O2Al3+ N3-

Formula for some ionic compounds NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 Na2O MgO Al2O3 Na3N Mg3N2 AlN

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Naming ionic compounds

B group metals may have more than one possible charge ( due to more than one oxidation state). Use roman numerals (I,II,III) in the name to indicate the charge on the metal. . Cu1+ + O2= Cu2O copper (I) oxide copper (I) oxide Cu2+ + copper (II) O2oxide = CuO copper (II) oxide

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Naming ionic compounds

Each bromide is 1- so iron 3+ FeBr3 Iron (iii) bromide FeCl2 iron (ii) chloride FeCl3 iron (iii) chloride SnBr2 tin (ii) bromide SnBr4 tin (iv) bromide AgCl silver chloride CdS cadmium sulfide There are some exception Some B metals only have a single state so the roman numeral may be omitted Some A metals have more than one State so numbers must be used

FeBr3

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A poly atomic ion is a group of nonmetal atoms (which are covalently bonded together), that carries electrical charge Some ions have characteristic colors they impart to their compounds as seen below

Polyatomic ions

Solution of potassium chromate, which contains the yellow chromate ion,CrO42-.

Solution of potassium dichromate ion, Cr2O72-.

Solution of potassium permanganate, which contains the violet 30 permanganate Ion, MnO4-

Some common polyatomic ions

Cation
NH4+

Name of cation
ammonium

Anion
ClO2-

Name of anion
chlorite

H3O+

hydronium

ClO-or OClPO43HPO42H2PO4CrO42Cr2O72MnO4-

hypochlorite
phosphate hydrogen phosphate dihydrogen phosphate chromate dichromate permanganate

CH3CO2NO3OHO22SO42-

acetate
nitrate hydroxide peroxide sulphate
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Naming compounds containing polyatomic ions

Write the positive ion, first, and then write the name of the polyatomic ion NH4Cl ammonium chloride
NaOH KMnO4 (NH4)2SO4 AgNO3 H2O2 Fe2(SO4)3 sodium hydroxide potassium permanganate ammonium sulfate silver nitrate hydrogen peroxide iron (III) sulphate
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Most polyatomic ions have names that end with -ate or- ide.

Chemical Formulas of complex compounds

Example: Copper

sulfate CuSO4.5H2O

heat

CuSO4.5H2O. Blue crystal

CuSO4 White powder

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I-INTRAMOLECULAR BONDING 2- COVALENT BONDS

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COVALENT BONDS
Bonds are formed between two non metals by sharing of one or more pairs of electrons. CH4, CCl4, O2, H2, NH3, CO2 H2O, HCl, HF ,

The attractive forces between two atoms dominate (take over) the repulsive forces. Total potential energy decreases as a result bond is formed at a short distance, called bond distance.
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Formation of covalent bond

A No interaction eP+ eP B Attraction begins

ee-

Both nuclei repel each other, as both electron clouds do

eP

eP+

P+

eD Combination of forces

The nucleus of one atom attracts the 36 electron clouds of the other atom , vice versa electron share

eC Covalent bond

Formation of Covalent Bond

+
Atom A Two atoms Electron pair shared Between atom A and Atom B Atom B Atom A Atom B

Example: Formation of ICl Molecule

+
Iodine Two atoms Electron pair shared between iodine and Chlorine chlorine

Iodine

Chlorine
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Examples
Electron-Dots Structures Molecular Models
H2

1. H. + .H

H :H

or HH

2. H. + .F

H:F
H : H:C:H : H

or H-F
H
Or

HF

3.

4H. +

H C H

methane

CH4

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Covalent Compounds Cl2 molecule

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

x
x

x x x

x x x

Other ways of showing a chlorine molecule:

x x x x

Cl

x x

Cl
x x

Cl-Cl

a shared electron pair forms a single covalent bond

HCl molecule
x x x x x x

x H x

x x

x x

Cl
x x

x x x x

H-Cl
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Other ways showing a hydrogen chloride molecule:

Multiple Covalent Compounds

An oxygen molecule Other ways of showing an oxygen molecule
x
x x x x

x
x

xx x x

O
x

x
x

O2

A nitrogen molecule
x

two shared electrons pairs form a double covalent bond

double bond

Other ways of showing a nitrogen molecule

x
xx xx

x
x

N
x

N
x

N2
40

triple bond
three shared electrons pairs form a triple covalent bond

Lewis Structure
When two hydrogen atoms share a pair of electron the covalent bond is formed. 1. H + H HH

H H
Two electrons Two electrons

2.

C + 4H

H HC H H

41

More Examples of Lewis Structure Covalent Bonds

H F

HO H

HN H H

Multiple Covalent Bonds

O C O

O C O
Eight electrons

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COORDINATE COVALENT BONDS

The type of bond, in which a pair of electrons from one atom is shared by two atoms, is called a coordinate covalent bond. Example The reaction of boron tri-chloride, BCl3, and ammonia, NH3.
H H Cl Cl H H Cl Cl

H H N H

Cl B Cl Cl

N: + B H Cl

N : B H Cl

Coordinate covalent bond.

43

a. Low melting and boiling points because of weak intermolecular binding force b. They are generally volatile because of their low M.P. and B.P. c. They are mostly insoluble in water d. Even if some covalent compounds dissolve in water they do not form ion and remain almost undissociated. e. They are generally soluble in organic solvents. f. They are non-conductors of electricity in solid state.
44

PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Electrons in a covalent bond rarely get shared equally. Unequal H sharing F results in polar bonds
Slight positive side Smaller electro negativity Slight negative side Larger electro negativity

Polarity of molecules

Polar covalent bonds

Electrons may not be shared equally. This is based on the electro-negativity difference between the two elements forming the bond. If: 1.Electronegativity difference > 1.7 (ionic bond) 2.Electronegativity difference = 0 (covalent non-polar bond) 3.Values between 0 and 1.7 are polar covalent bond In polar covalent electrons are not shared equally

45

Electro-negativity increases across the period & decreases down the group Increase
H He Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra Sc Y Lu Lr Ti Zr Hf Rf V Cr Mn Tc Re Bh Fe Co Ni Cu Zn B Al C Si N P O S Se Te Po
Uuh

Decreases

Li Na K Rb Cs Fr

F Cl Br I At

Ne

Ar Kr Xe Rn

Ga Ge As Sn Pb
Uuq

Nb Mo Ta W

Ru Rh Pd Os Ir Hs Mt Pt
Uun

Ag Cd In Au Hg Ti
Uuu Uub UuT

Sb BI

Db Sg

La Ac

Ce Pr Th Pa

Nd Pm U Np

Sm Eu Pu Am

Gd Cm

Tb Bk

Dy Cf

Ho Er Es Fm

Tm Md

Yb No

46

Shapes of Molecules
Molecule CH4 Structure
Electron Dot

Atoms 4

Bonded Molecular

Shape (angle)

H HC H H

tetrahedral (1090)

NH3

HN H H
HO H

pyramidal (1090)

H2 O

bent (1090)

BCl3

Cl Cl B Cl

planar-trigonal
47

Molecular Geometry
Molecules have specific shapes which is determined by the number of electron pairs around the central species. An electron group can be the electron pairs bonded to atoms or a lone pair.

Geometry affects factors like polarity and Solubility. Multiple bonds are treated as a single bond for geometry
48

Characteristic physical properties

The temperature at which a liquid is converted to a gas at atmospheric pressure. The temperature at which a solid is converted to a liquid.

Boiling point

Melting point

Compounds
N2 O2 NH3 H2O NaCl

nonpolar nonpolar polar polar ionic

Bond

-210 -219 -78 0 804

Mp

-196 -183 -33 100 ?

49

Bp

II- Intermolecular Attractions

50

Intermolecular Attractions
Forces between Molecules that determine Physical properties Types of Intermolecular Attractions

1 Dipole dipole attractions

2. Hydrogen Bonding 3. London Forces
51

1- DipoleDipole Attractions
These attractions are weaker than ionic or covalent bonds (i.e. only 1% strong). These attraction are due to the electrons which make the bond but

- +

+ and - ends are attracted to each other .

are not equally shared between atoms because of a difference in electro-negativity of these atoms.
52

2. Hydrogen Bonding (dipole-dipole interaction)

The attraction between a hydrogen atom in one molecule and an electronegative atom (F,O,N) in another molecule is hydrogen bonding
H+F- H+F- H+FThis attraction is responsible for high boiling point of water
53

Hydrogen bonding in water

The water molecule is very polar
H O H

Polar water molecule

Hydrogen bonding produces strong attractions between water molecules

H O H

Hydrogen bonding

54

The density of ice is 0.931 gm/cubic cm. This compares with a density of 1.00 gm/cubic cm.

Density of Ice

Water

for water

so ice floats on water

Ice

Tetrahedral shape

In liquid water each molecule is hydrogen bonded to approximately 3- 4 other water molecules In ice each molecule is tetrahedrally hydrogen bonded to 4 other molecules. which controls the orientation such that ice has empty 55 spaces which makes ice lighter

3.London Dispersion Forces

Van der Waal forces The attraction of positively charged nucleus of one atom for electron cloud of an atom in nearby molecule. These are relatively weak forces and exist in symmetrical non-polar molecules like CH4, SO3, CO2, O2, H2, He

Random motion of electrons for instant causes electrons more on one side & instantaneous dipole is produced that induces a dipole in its neighbor.
56

London forces
+ - + -

As the dipole forms in atom A, it induces a dipole in atom B

London forces are momentary and called instantaneous dipole

57

Flickering On and Off of the Dipoles

No Polarization

Instantaneous Dipoles on atom A induces a dipole on atom B

The electron density fluctuates in two neighboring atoms, giving rise to fleeting attractions between the momentary dipoles.
58

M.C.Q: Choose the best answer. 1. Force of attraction that holds atoms in a molecule together is: a) covalent bond b) ionic bond c) chemical bond d) coordinate bond form: a) ions b) cations c) anions d) Polar covalent bond 3. Indicate the members of nonmetals: a) Lithium b) Oxygen c) Chlorine d) both b & c

CHEMICAL BONDING

Exercise

2. If atoms gain or lose electron, they will

59

M.C.Q
4. The formation of ions from neutral atoms is nearly always: a) endothermic b) exothermic c) both a & b. d) none of the above 5. In making bonds atoms obey octet rule, so number of electrons in their outer shell may be: a) 2 or 8 electrons b) 6 or 8 electrons c) 8 or 10 electrons d)18-electrons 6. Choose the polar compound: a) CH4 b) NaCl

c) HCl

d) Both a & c

7. The bond formed in CH4 molecule is by: a) Loss of electrons b) Gain of electrons c) Sharing of electrons d) Both a & b
60

8. The loss of electron/electrons from outer shell of metals make them: a) positive ion and smaller in size than corresponding atom b) negative ion and smaller than atom c) positive ion and bigger than atom 9. Gain of electron/electrons by non metals changes them into: a) positive ions b) negative ions c) neutral atoms d) both a & b 10. Example of anion:

a) K+
a). HF

b) O-

c) Mg +2
C) H2O

d) Na
d). Both a & b
61

11. Ionic compounds: b) Ca O

12. If difference between electro negativity values of the atoms is > 1.7 they will form: a) Ionic bond b) Covalent bond c) Polar covalent bond d) Non polar covalent bond

13. The force of attraction among water, H2O ,molecules is: a) Dipole-dipole interaction b) London forces c) Hydrogen bonding d) None of the above.
14The molecule that shows London dispersion forces is: a) NaCl b) CO2 c) H2O d) MgO

15. What are Intermolecular Forces? a) Hydrogen bonding b) London Forces c) Dipole-dipole interaction d) All of these
62

16. The atoms complete their outer shells by obeying octet rule and attain electronic configuration of: a) Alkali metals b) Halogens c) noble gases d) Transition metals 17. Energy required to break a chemical bond & form a neutral isolated atom is called: a) Bond energy b) Bond order c) Bond distance d) both a & b

18. Find out the chemical formula of organic solvent named carbon tetra chloride: a) :CCl2 b) CH4 c) CCl4 d) CHCl3 19. Identify the ionic molecule: a) NH3 b) N2

c) H2O

d) NaCl
63