GROUP 2
 American mechanical engineer
Frederick Winslow Taylor
(March 20, 1856 - March 21, 1915
“Father of Scientific Management”
who sought to improve
industrial efficiency
 In 1878 he joined the Midvale
Steel Works in Philadelphia as
machinist
 rose to the position of chief
engineer after earning in
Engineering
 1911-
how the application of the scientific method to the management
of workers greatly could improve productivity

In the field of nursing practice, simple job such as vital

signs taking were assigned assistant nurses. Unskilled
workers can be trained for a task to develop their skills is
one of the way to apply Scientific management.
 These studies were characterized by the use of a stopwatch
to time a worker's sequence of motions, with the goal of
determining the one best way to perform a job. In this
principle Taylor applied observation, measurement and
scientific comparison to determine the most efficient way
to accomplish a task.

◦ In the field of Nursing practice each Nurses has their own shift and
coffee breaks, this shift provides them opportunity to rest and gather
strength to perform certain task. Just like in time study of Taylor optimal
timing of working and resting work could increase productivity without
tiring per day.
◦ Another observation was made by Taylor, that not all worker are
physically capable of doing heavy jobs. In the field of nursing practice,
most of the workers working in the Emergency Department are Men,
who can usually lift heavy patients during emergency procedures, and
most women are assigned in taking care of the patient’s chart
 Management should develop the best work method.
Replace rule-of-thumb (rule that is not reliable for every
situation) work methods with methods based on a scientific
study of the tasks.
 Scientifically select, train, and develop each worker rather
than passively leaving them to train themselves.
 Cooperate with the workers to ensure that the scientifically
developed methods are being followed.
 Management should ensure and equal decision of work and
responsibilities between manager and workers. So that the
managers apply scientific management principles to
planning the work and the workers actually perform the
tasks.
Frank Bunker Gilbreth

the engineer who conceived the "Motion

Study" Principles (techniques for manual
productivity improvement). Frank Gilbreth's well-
known work in improving brick-laying in the
construction trade is a good example of his
approach.

His system of “speed work” eliminated haste

and also increased work output by cutting out
unnecessary motions. Workers could be then paid
higher wages because they accomplish more in
shorter time.
Lillian Evelyn Moller

“First Lady of Management”

Henry Gantt
In his later career as a management consultant
following the invention of the Gantt chart he also
designed the 'task and bonus' system of wage
payment and additional measurement methods
worker efficiency and productivity. Henry Gantt is
listed under Stevens Institute of Technology alumni
and roommate to Frederick Winslow Taylor.

Innovator of Scheduling and Rewarding

Employees

Gantt made significant contributions in the areas

of scheduling and controlling of work as well as the
rewarding of workers.
 Mary Parker Follett

(1868-1933)

-a visionary and pioneering individual in the field

of human relations, democratic organization, and
management
Pioneer in Conflict Resolution

-her research and writings pointed to a collaborative

approach to problem solving that advocated
compromise. One of her favorite admonition was
“don’t over manage employees, and she referred to
this over management as “bossism”.
The Speaker of the House of Representatives
(1909)
Scientific Management

Key Concepts
•Analyzed work using scientific methods to determine the one best way to
complete production tasks.
•Emphasized study of task, selection and training of workers and cooperation
between workers and managers.

Contributions
•Improve factory productivity and efficiency
•Introduced scientific analysis to the workplace
•Piece-rate system equated worker rewards and
performance
•Instilled cooperation between managers and workers

Limitations
•Simplistic motivational assumptions
•Workers viewed as part of a machine
•Potential for exploitation of labor
•Excluded senior management tasks.
 Modern Operational Management Theory

Classic Administration

Organization thinking began to receive attention in 1930. Deductive

rather than inductive, it viewed the organization as a whole than focusing
solely on production, or a single segment of it.
 Henri Fayol (1841- 1925)
Father of Modern Operational
Management Theory
-identified five functions and fourteen principles of
management

Five functions of management:

Planning
Organizing
Commanding
Coordinating
Controlling
 Division of Work.

Divide the work into specialized tasks and assign responsibilities to

individuals. Specialization allows the individual to build up experience, and
to continuously improve his skills. Thereby he can be more productive.
 Authority.

The right to issue commands, along with which must go the balanced
responsibility for its function. Delegate authority along with responsibility.
One without the other leads to managerial failure.
 Discipline. Employees must obey, but this is two-sided: employees will
only obey orders and respect the rules and agreements if the management
plays their part by providing good leadership. Make expectations and
sanction violations.
 Unity of Command.

Each worker should have only one boss with no other conflicting lines of command. This
means that employees should receive orders from one superior only.
 Unity of Direction.

People engaged in the same kind of activities must have the same objectives in a single
plan. This is essential to ensure unity and coordination in the enterprise. Unity of command
does not exist without unity of direction but does not necessarily flows from it. The
employees’ efforts are focused on achieving organizational objectives.
 Subordination of individual interest (to the general interest).

Management must see that the goals of the firms are always paramount. The general
interest must predominate.
 Remuneration. Compensation for work done should be fair to both employees and
employers. Payment is an important motivator although by analyzing a number of
possibilities, Fayol points out that there is no such thing as a perfect system.
 Centralization (or Decentralization). This is a matter of degree depending on the condition of the
business and the quality of its personnel. Determine the relative importance of superior and
subordinate roles
 Scalar chain (Line of Authority). Keep communications within the chain of command. A hierarchy is
necessary for unity of direction. But lateral communication is also fundamental, as long as superiors
know that such communication is taking place. Scalar chain refers to the number of levels in the
hierarchy from the ultimate authority to the lowest level in the organization. It should not be over-
stretched and consist of too-many levels.
 Order. Both material order and social order are necessary. The former minimizes lost time and
useless handling of materials. The latter is achieved through organization and selection. The
resources of the company- its raw materials and workers- must be in the right place and the right
time. This ordering of the organizational resources ensures maximal efficiency.
 Equity. In running a business a ‘combination of kindliness and justice’ is needed. Treating
employees well is important to achieve equity. Employees should feel they are being treated
equally ang fairly.Fair discipline and order enhance employee commitment
 Stability of Tenure of Personnel. Employees work better if job security and career
progress are assured to them. An insecure tenure and a high rate of employee turnover will
affect the organization adversely. Finding unnecessary turnover to be both the cause and
effect of bad management, Fayol points out its dangers and cost.
 Initiative. Allowing all personnel to show their initiative in some way is a source of strength
for the organization. Even though it may well involve a sacrifice of ‘personal vanity’ on the
part of many managers. Encourage employees to act on their own in support of the
organization’s direction.
 Esprit de Corps. Management must foster the morale of its employees. He further suggests
that: “real talent is needed to coordinate effort, encourage keenness, use each person’s
abilities, and reward each one’s merit without arousing possible jealousies and disturbing
harmonious relations.” The management should ty to encourage harmony and common
interests, promoting unity of interest between employees and management.
 James Mooney
(1884-1957)

management as the technique of directing people and

organizing the technique of relating functions. Organization is
the management’s responsibility

Mooney enumerated the four universal

principles of organization as follows:

a. coordination and synchronization of activities for the accomplishment of a goal can be

accomplished in part through.
b. Functional effects, the performance of one’s job description.
c. scalar process organizes.
d. Authority into a hierarchy.
 Lyndall Urwick
(1891-1939)

-integrated the ideas of Henri Fayol and James Mooney. His

conceptual framework blended scientific management and
classic organization theory into the beginnings of classic
management theory.
Administrative Management

Key Concepts:
Fayol’s five functions and fourteen principles of management.
Executive formulate the organization’s purpose, secure employees, and
maintain communications.
Managers must respond to changing developments

Limitation
 universal prescriptions need qualifications for
environmental technological, and personnel factors
 Bureaucracy
Karl Emil Maximilian Weber
-showed how management itself could be more efficient
and consistent in his book, “The Theory of Social and
Economic Organization”

-earned the title of “Father of Organization Theory” by

his conceptualization of bureaucracy with emphasis on
rules instead of individuals and on competence over
favoritism as the most efficient basis for organization
 Organization Theory

The 6 principles of these organizations are:

Tasks are specialized.

People are appointed by merit or promotion because of
their ability and not because of favoritism and whim.
Career opportunities for the members are provided.
Authority and responsibility are clearly specified.
Activities are routinized.
A rational and impersonal climate exists.
APPLICABILITY OF THEORY IN NURSING

Weber believed bureaucratic structures can eliminate the

variability that results when managers in same organization have different
skills, experiences, and goals. Weber advocated that the jobs themselves
be standardized so that personnel changes would not disrupt the
organization. He emphasized:

Key Concepts of Bureaucracy:

II. Structured, formal network of relationships among specialized

positions in an organization
III.  
IV. Rules and regulations standardize behavior and authority
resides in positions rather than in individuals.

VI. Jobs staffed by trained specialists who follow rules.

VIII.  
IX. Hierarchy defines the relationship among jobs.
Contributions:

Promotes efficient performance of routine organizational activities.

Eliminates subjective judgment by employees and management.
Emphasizes position rather than the person.

Limitations:

Limited organizational flexibility and slow decision making.

Ignores the importance of people and interpersonal relationships.
Accumulation of power can lead to authoritarian management.
Rules may become ends in themselves.
Difficult to dismantle once established.
Human Relation Theory

This movement began in the 1940’s with the attention focused on the
effect individuals have on the success or failure of an organization. The chief
concerns of the human relations movement are individuals, group, process,
interpersonal relations, leadership and communication.

Theory of leadership behavior that focuses on the employee or, in a coach-

athlete relationship, the athlete. It is consistent with the consideration approach
to leadership.
Mary Parker Follet
(1868-1933)

she stressed the importance of coordinating the psychological and

sociological aspects of management.

Follet distinguished between power with others and power over

others and indicated the legitimate power is produced by a
circular behavior whereby superior and subordinates mutually
influences one another. The law of the situation dictates that a
person does not take orders from another person but from the
situation

Today, Mary Parker Follett is better known for her pioneering work
on management - although her contribution was soon forgotten
after her death in 1933 (especially in the USA). She looked to
approach organizations as group networks rather than as
hierarchical structures, and attended to the influence of human
relations within the group.
 Elton Mayo (1880-1949)
and the Hawthorne Effect

Elton Mayo's detailed and continuing work in the

Hawthorne experiments, widely publicized as it
was, seemed to suggest that a new approach to
motivation and employee care was both possible
and sensible.

The studies investigated the effects of changes in illumination

on productivity. Finding that, when the illumination was either increased
or decreased for a test group, productivity improved.
Committed to discovering the reasons for increases in
productivity, the scientist began intensive interviewing of all
the workers and discovered that workers increased
productivity because:
the test room was enjoyable to work in
the relationship between worker and supervisor was more relaxed for
the worker group during the experimental period
the workers responded to the realization that they ere taking part in a
meaningful experiment
the experience of participating in the experiment created a feeling of
identity and belonging

This phenomenon arising from people

being noticed has been known as the
“Hawthorne Effect”
 Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
His work had a profound impact on social
psychology and, more particularly for our
purposes here, on our appreciation of
experiential learning, group dynamics and
action research.

He advocated democratic
supervision. His research
indicated that democratic
groups in which participants
solve their own problems and
have the opportunity to consult
with the leader are most
effective.
 Jacob L. Moreno (1892-1974)

-developed sociometry to analyze group behavior. Claiming

that people are either attracted, repulsed, or feel
indifferent towards others, he developed the sociogram to
chart pairings and rankings of preference for others, this
process of classification can be used to calculate which
workers are capable of harmonious interpersonal
relationships.
Contributions
•Psychological and social processes influence performance.

Limitations
•Ignored workers’ rational side and the formal organization contribution to
productivity.
•Research findings overturn the prescription that happy workers are more
productive.
 Behavioral Science Theory

This theory emphasized the use of scientific procedures

to study the physiological, sociological, and anthropological
aspects of human behavior in organizations.

Behavioral scientists stressed the importance of

maintaining a positive attitude toward people, training managers,
meeting employees’ needs, promoting employees’ sense of
achievement, and obtaining commitment thru participation in
planning and decision making.
 
 .

He initiated the human behavioral school in 1943 with his

development of hierarchy of needs theory. He outlined a
hierarchical structure for human needs classified into five
categories:

Physiological needs – these are the most important and the most
necessary for survival. They include the need for oxygen, water,
sleep, sex and activity.
3.Safety – includes freedom from danger, threat and deprivation.
Abraham Maslow 4.Love – composed of affectionate relations with others,
(1908-1970)
acceptance, recognition and companionship.
5.Esteem – comprises self respect, positive self evaluation, and
regard by others.
6.Self actualization – composed of self fulfillment and achievement.
Frederick Herzberg
(1923 – 2000)

An authority on motivation and the nature of

work, he advocated using job enrichment as a
motivator. His books include The Motivation to
Work (1959) and Work and the Nature of Man
(1966).
Douglas McGregor

He developed the managerial implications of

Maslow’s Theory. He noted that one’s style of
management is dependent on one’s philosophy
of human and categorized those assumptions as
Theory X and Theory Y.
 Chris Argyris
(1932)

The founding theory of organizational learning developed by

Chris Argyris emphasises the practice of learning from an
action perspective. The main ideas of his work are first of all
that individuals are a critical element when they are acting
to lean, secondly it is impossible to learn without using our
brain and lastly all the knowledge has to be generalized in
ways that the brain can distil it and apply it in order to make
such new knowledge actionable
 -summarised the study, dividing supervisors into two
categories: “Employee-centred”, and “production-centred”.

Both the Ohio State Studies and The University of

Michigan studies conclude that better performance and
employee satisfaction were gained through a more personable
participative approach

He has examined different types of organizations

and leadership styles, and he asserts that to achieve
maximum profitability, good labor relations and high
Rensis Likert productivity, every organization must make optimum use of
(1903-1981) their human assets.

The form of the organization which will make

greatest use of the human capacity, Likert contends, is;
highly effective work groups linked together in an overlapping
pattern by other similarly effective groups.
Organizations at present have widely varying types of
management style and Likert has identified four main
systems:

• exploitive - authoritative system

• benevolent - authoritative system
• consultative system
• participative - group system
This fourth system is the one which is the ideal for the profit oriented and human-
concerned organization.

Likert says that all organizations should adopt this system. Clearly, the
changes involved may be painful and long-winded, but it is necessary if one is to
achieve the maximum rewards for the organization.

Three broad groups of organizational variables:

a.      Causal variables are those that can be changed or

altered. In this sense they may be considered as the
independent variables in the model.
b.     Intervening variables are those that lead to the results of
the causal manipulations. They reflect the general internal
state and health of the organization.
c.      End-result variables are dependent variables or outputs
and reflect organizational achievement.
 SYSTEMS THEORY
This theory provides a way to interpret organizations. It takes a holistic view of
the entire organizational system and stresses process.

The development of the Systems Theory has provided a basis of

understanding and integration of scientific knowledge from a variety of
specialized skills.

- an organized, unitary whole composed of 2 or more interdependent

parts, components, or subsystems and delineated by identifiable

boundaries for its environment suprasystem. In layman’s term,
Systems Theory can be defined as the study of systems used to track
the flow of information, in order to solve a problem.
 A biologist and is considered the founder
and the father of General Systems Theory, and
almost every field of science (physical, social, and
mathematical) has contributed to its development. 

Karl Ludwig von Bertalanffy

General Systems Theory attempted to identify and
document the characteristics common to all systems.
"For a system to function as a system, rather than a
collection of parts, it must have ways of self-
organizing and even directing behavior.
The key concept of the Systems Theory

3.A system is more than the sum of its part; it must be viewed as a whole

5.Systems can be considered open or closed.

Open System allows exchange of information, energy or material with

its environment. Open systems are seen as highly complex,
interdependent, and characterized by an expectation of change and
uncertainty and change, internally and externally. This system also
assumes that organizational components will seek "equilibrium" among
the forces pressing on them and their own response to their focus.
 
Closed System does not interact with its environment.
 
1. A system has boundaries that separate it from the environment.

3. Close system are subject to entropy (a tendency to run down), which increase until
entire system fails. Open systems that receive inputs from their environment do not
experience entropy if these inputs are as great as the energy the systems use plus
their outputs. In open system entropy can be arrested or transformed into negative
entropy (a process of more complete organization and ability to transform resources)
by importing more from the environment than the systems use and export
1. If open system is to survive, it must receive enough inputs from its
environment to offset its output plus the energy and material used
in the operation of the system. When a system achieves such a
balance, it is in a steady state, or a state of dynamic equilibrium.
The system remains in dynamic equilibrium through the inflow of
materials, energy and information.

3. If a system is to achieve a steady state, it must have a feed back;

information concerning the process of the system is fed back as
input into the system.

5. Systems have subsystems and are also part of the supra system;
they are hierarchical.
• Closed system tends toward entropy and disorganization, whereas open system
tend toward increase elaboration, differentiation, and a higher level of organization.

• Open system can achieve desired results (such as steady state) in various ways by
means of a process called equilfinality. Some results may be achieved with different
initial conditions and in different ways
 OPEN SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE of an ORGANIZATION

Organizations are open systems, dependent on inputs from the

outside world such as raw materials, human resources and capital. They
transform these inputs into outputs that meet the market’s needs for
goods and services.
The environment reacts to the outputs through a feed back
loop; this feed back provides input for the next cycle of the system. The
process repeats itself for the life of the system.
 
 THE ACCEPTANCE
THEORY OF
AUTHORITY
In 1938 wrote The Functions of the Executive, based on his years of
experience as president of the New Jersey Bell Telephone Company.
He Focused on the psychosocial aspects of organization and
management. He considers the organization a social system in his
definition of formal organization as “ system of consciously
coordinated activities or forces of 2 or more persons”.
CHESTER BARNARD
He maintained that the people form organizations to achieve
common goals and stressed “cooperative effort” as a key to
organizational success and managerial effectiveness.

He also focused on:

7.Maintenance of organizational COMMUNICATION through a scheme

of organization coupled with LOYAL, RESPONSIBLE, and CAPABLE
people
8.Securing of essential services from individuals in the organization
9.The formulation and definition of purpose or stating the
importance of objectives.
KEY CONCEPTS

Organization is viewed as an open system

Management must interact with the environment to gather
inputs and return the outputs of its production.
Organizational activities must encompass both efficiency and
effectiveness.
Organization contains series of subsystems.
Synergies exist where the whole is greater the sum of the
parts
 
Contributions

Recognize the importance of the organizations relationship

with the external environment.

Limitation

Does not provide specific guidance o the function and duties of

managers.
 The Contingency Approach

The contingency approach to management asserts that

there is no universally applicable approach to a management
problem, but that the needs of the particular situation determine
the best approach to the organizational problem.

The contingency approach is eclectic in that manager

can make use of techniques of other approaches to management
if the application of these various techniques is the best solution
to the specific problem.

Three components of the contingency approach are the

environment, management concepts and techniques, and the
interrelationships between them.
The contingencies include:

Circumstances in the organization’s external

environment.
The internal strengths and weaknesses of the
organization.
The values, goals, skills, and attitudes of managers and
workers in the organization.
The types of tasks, resources, and technologies the
organization uses.