THE REFORMATION:

A CHALLENGE TO THE ESTABLISHED CATHOLIC CHURCH IN WESTERN EUROPE. DEFINITION: The Reformation was a religious movement of the 16th century, which culminated in the separation of many nations of Europe from the Church of Rome.

OBJECTIVES:

To reform the abuses of the Roman Catholic Church; and

Repudiation of papal claims to ecclesiastical supremacy.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: The Roman Catholic church was an extremely powerful institution in medieval Europe. Pope looked upon as representative of Christ. Enormous wealth and unlimited power. Wielded tremendous influence over the religious, social, political and moral life of Christendom.

The Popes, besides claiming spiritual supremacy, often interfered in the internal affairs of other countries. They ( Popes) taxed the clergy. Appointed their own nominees to church offices result their interference clashed with the rising sentiment of nationality and patriotism.

Secular princes of Europe, therefore, repudiated papal authority, not merely on religious grounds, but also with the object of freeing their dominions from papal control.

CAUSES OF THE REFORMATION:

1.RELIGIOUS: Worldliness of the Pope and clergy. Widespread corruption and immorality in the Catholic Church.

Early attempts at reform in England Wycliffe had attacked the greed and worldliness of the clergy, and had questioned some fundamental beliefs of the Catholic Church. Hence called the Morning Star of the Reformation.

In Bohemia John Huss attempted a religious revival, and suffered martyrdom. In Italy, Savonarola, the Florentine reformer who preached church reform, was burned at the stake .(1498). These early attempts failed because they were premature. People were ignorant. Had not yet learnt to think for themselves.

ECONOMIC: A large part of the landed property of Europe held by the church. A considerable portion of revenue derived from it went into the Roman treasury in the form of annates and other contributions. Heavy drain on national resources of the princes. Natural resentment. Vexatious demands of the clergy resented by the people.

POLITICAL: Papal interference was a menace to secular authority. Conflicted with the growing sense of national independence. With the growth of nationalism, the rulers of Europe sought to bring the Church under their control, so many of them supported the reformers to secure financial and political advantage for themselves.

Strong national monarchs wanted complete sovereignty, therefore repudiated foreign ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The Reformation was largely due to the impact of the Renaissance, which had evoked a spirit of critical enquiry, and so led men to attack the evils of the Church.

IMMEDIATE CAUSE: The sale of Indulgences ( pardons for sins) by Tetzel, a Dominican monk. In 1517 Martin Luther, a German monk and Professor of Theology at Wittenberg University, attacked the practice in his famous ninety-five theses, and led the revolt against the Papacy.

Martin Luther publicly protested at what he saw as the churchs corruption and called for reform. His campaign began what is known as the Reformation and led to the formation of the Protestant Church as his ideas were taken up and spread by rebels in other countries, such as Ulrich Zwingli in Switzerland and John Calvin in France.

The new technology of printing spread these new ideas. The Bible, which had previously been available only in Latin, the language of scholars, was translated into local languages for all to read. Some rulers used discontent with the church to further their own affairs. Henry VIII of England, for example, wanted his marriage with Catherine of Aragon dissolved.

He asked the Pope for a divorce, but when the Pope refused, Henry broke with the Church of Rome as a means to get his own way. In 1534 he is made head of the Church of England.

There was a widespread feeling of disaffection against the greed and worldliness of the Pope and the clergy. Martin Luther led the revolt against the papacy by attacking the Indulgences. The Pope excommunicated him, but Luther treated the papal bull with contempt and burnt it publicly. At the Diet of Worms ( 1521) Luther refused to recant and so was outlawed by an Edict.

Luther took refuge with the Elector of Saxony, but during his retirement, the extreme section of his followers created disturbances. Luther checked them, and strongly denounced the risings of the knights and peasants. The Emperor Charles V, on account of his wars with France, with the Pope and with the Turks, could not take effective steps against Luther. Hence the Reformed faith spread.

Charles V attempted a compromise at the two Diets held at Spier ( 1526 and 1529), as well as at Augsburg, but his efforts failed. Charles refused to accept the Protestant creed as embodied in the Confession of Augsburg, and threatened strong measures. The Lutherans then formed the defensive League of Schmalkalden which gave them an organisation as the Confession had given them a creed.

The last attempt at compromise failed at the General Council of Trent, so Charles declared war against the Schmalkaldic League. Maurice of Saxony was the determinig factor in this war. It was his help which enabled Charles to defeat the Protestants at Muhlberg, while his defection caused him ( Charles V) to flee. This war was terminated by the Peace of Augsburg in 1555.

TERMS OF THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG (1555) It empowered every state of Germany to decide for itself the legal religion within its territory. This settlement was based on the principle Cujus regio ejus religio ( he who rules a country may decide its religion). This peace for the first time gave legal recognition to the Protestants.

Secondly, a clause known as the Ecclesiastical Reservation was inserted, by which it was declared that any bishop going over to the reformed church would lose his office and all the patronage connected with it. This clause saught to prevent further secularisation of church property.

CRITICISM OF THE TREATY: It contained the seeds of future discord. By leaving the settlement of religion in the hands of the princes of Germany, it took no account of the religious convictions of the people. Any prince could exercise spiritual tyranny by forcing his subjects to conform to his faith. Toleration, granted to rulers but denied to the people, can never be a satisfactory settlement.

Secondly, the Ecclesiastical Reservation clause, which was altogether in the interests of the Roman Catholics, proved a source of friction, and in the long run, culminated in the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). Lastly, this peace completely ignored the Calvinists who were shortly to become the most active of reformers. Though defective, the Peace of Augsburg secured religious peace in Germany for more than half a century.

As the religion of each state in Germany was to be dictated by its prince, the Lutherans were compelled to court the support of the territorial princes. The result was that Lutheranism strengthened the hands of the princes but lost its popular character.

CHARACTER OF MARTIN LUTHER: Luther was of peasant ancestry, and all through his life he carried with him the simplicity of the peasant, coupled with his sturdiness and obstinacy. He was subject to violent outbursts of coarseness and vulgarity, but what marked him above others was his earnestness and undaunted spirit, which enabled him to hurl defiance at the Papacy, still looked upon as the spiritual head of Christendom.

WHY WAS THE REFORMATION SUCCESSFUL IN GERMANY? The commanding personality of Martin Luther possessed invincible courage and the power of inspiring his followers with his own ardent faith.

Political condition of Germany no political unity because it was a confederation of numerous semi-independent states. As these states could not agree about Luthers conduct, there could be no united resistance to his teachings.

Moreover, Charles V , on account of the many calls upon his attention, rarely found his hands free to suppress the movement. Too involved in his foreign wars and the manifold problems of his huge dominions to be able to tackle Lutheran heresy. Lastly, Lutheranism appealed to a large section of Germany as a national movement against foreigners. In Germany Charles V was disliked as a Spaniard and the Pope as Italian.

SPREAD OF THE REFORMATION: The news of Luthers protest against the authority of the Church soon reached other European countries. In Switzerland John Calvin became a Protestant leader preaching his own doctrines on every phase of life. He was harsh and stern, opposed to gaiety in any form. Calvinism was a gloomy religion and inspired no art. However, it produced distinguished scholars and men of strong character, noted for self reliance and industry.

Religious sects similar to the Calvinists were called Puritans in England and America, Presbyterians in Scotland, and Huguenots in France. In the Scandanavian countries Denmark,Norway, Sweden- the rulers accepted Luthers religion. The Protestant Lutheran Church became the official church in the Scandanavian countries.

THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND: In England, Henry VIII declared himself head of the Church when the Pope refused to give him permission to divorce his wife, Catherine. Henry VIIIs reign was followed by a long conflict between Catholics and Protestants. In 1559, Queen Elizabeth1 established the Church of England as the official church.

Religious conflicts continued to rock England and the Continent, but by the 17th century half of Europe had adopted one or the other of the Protestant creeds. From 1545 the Catholic Church fought back with a movement called the Counter Reformation, sending out Jesuit priests to campaign against the spread of Protestantism and convert the peoples of the Spanish empire.

The split between Christians in western Europe led to wars as countries struggled with new religious alliances. Catholics and Protestants persecuted one another, often in the cruelest ways. As religious disputes in Europe continued into the 1600s some people left Europe and sought religious freedom in the new world of America. The most serious religious conflict was the Thirty Years War which began in 1618 and ended in 1648.

RESULTS OF THE REFORMATION: Most nations of the Teutonic race ( England, Scotland, North Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and part of Netherlands) separated from the Church of Rome. The unity of Christendom was thus broken up. The authority of the Pope gave way to the authority of the Bible. Freedom of opinion and independent judgement took the place of blind obedience to the Church.

Protestantism assumed a national form. Each Protestant country established a state religion. Released from Papal servitude, the nations of Europe became absolutely independent in their internal affairs. The power of the rulers was greatly increased.

By confiscation of Church property and control of the clergy, the Protestant princes were personally enriched and their absolutist tendencies were freed from fear of being hampered by ecclesiastical control.

Protestant countries were more democratic in character, hence out-did the Catholic countries in political progress and material prosperity. The sufferings of the peasants increased with the growth of royal despotism and the harsh exactions of lay proprietors.