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Introduction
A Power Transformer is a vital link in a power transmission system and impact of a transformer fault is more serious than a transmission line outage. Following are important. High quality transformer. Operating the transformer within specified limits of temperature and voltage. Proper checking and maintaining OLTC. Providing suitable protective relays and monitoring devices.
Insulation Breakdown
Main causes of this are Aging of insulation due to over temperature during long time. Contaminated oil. Corona discharges in the insulation. Transient overvoltages due to thunderstorms or switching in the network. Current forces on the windings due to external faults with high current.
Aging of Insulation
Aging of insulation is a function of time and temperature. Part of the winding operated at highest temperature undergoes greatest deterioration. Improved cooling of transformer helps avoid accelerated aging of the insulation.
Requirement of CT
Type of differential
TYPE of transformer
Generator transformer Sub station transformer Furnace transformer Rectifier transformer
Phase shift
Ratio
Class Polarity
Connection
Harmonic restraint
Reduced Cooling
Forced cooling systems should be supervised to get alarm. Oil temperature should be watched and appropriate action taken if transformer gets overheated.
Overexcitation Protection
Monitors
Monitors are very important devices which detect faults and abnormal service conditions which may develop into fault.
Temperature Monitoring
Transformer can stand short time overload upto 1.5 times the rated. Overcurrent relays cannot be used for overload monitoring as they have to be set above the set short time overload.
Fault Currents
The reactance decreases rapidly for fault close to neutral. Primary fault current for ground fault between 0-40% from neutral is below 1.5In and therefore O/C relay will not be able to detect this. Primary current is approximately proportional to square of the short circuited fraction of the winding.
Turn-to-turn Faults
Turn to turn faults between a few turns is difficult to detect by current measuring relays. Fault current is of the order of rated current when 2 to 4% of the turns are short circuited. The current in the short circuited loop is high (50-100 times In) and causes local damage and release of gas. Therefore rate of rise of pressure relay may detect this fault.
Differential Relay
The protective zone of a Differential relay includes faults in transformer, faults on Buses or cables between the CT and transformer. Therefore it has a large protective zone than a gas detector relay. A transformer differential relay must be able to cope with the following conditions. 1. Magnetizing inrush current:
This is developed when voltage is returning to normal after a line fault and depends on - The size of the power transformer - The source impedance - The magnetic properties of the core material - The remanence of the core - The moment when the transformer is switched in
The magnitude can be 5-10 times the rated current when switching is done on outer winding of the transformer and 10-20 times rated current when done on the inner winding.
Damping of inrush current depends on total resistance of source network and lasts for few seconds. Inrush can also develop in an energized transformer when a parallel transformer is switched. (The damping of the combined inrush current will then be less than normal and inrush may last for several minutes) 2nd harmonic restraint prevents unwanted operation of the relay due to inrush is prevented.
3. Internal Faults: Operating time of typical differential relay(ABB RADSB relay ) for a
fault current of 5 times the rated current is 27ms. Unrestrained operation circuit to speed up the operation for a high fault current 8ms at 10 times the set operating current.
Setting of 20*In required when large through fault currents can saturate the CTs and causes a large differential current for 1 & 1/2 CB arrangement.
4. External Faults: For faults outside the protective zone of the relay a relatively large
differential current can occur due to position of the tap changer and differences between the CTs.
The differential relay should not operate for this differential current. The differential relays are provided with a through-fault restraint circuit which makes the relay operate for a certain % differential
Restraint characteristic
Use of Auxiliary CTs: Aux. CTs of Y are required even for YY transformer to prevent
any operation of relay for external ground fault.
For Y Power transformer, aux. CTs are required for balancing of currents and for correction of phase angles. Aux CTs are recommended on all sides of the transformer so that same time is taken for saturation for all the inputs. Connection of aux. CTs will depend on the connection of the Power transformer.
Differential Protection for Auto-transformers: Delta winding may or may not be connected to the network. If not
connected CTs are not required.
The differential relay will protect the main winding as well as the delta winding.
High impedance relay can be used by applying CTs in the neutral point of the main winding.
The relays protect the main winding but not the delta connected wdg.
All CTs should have the same ratio and auxiliary CTs can not be used. Saturation voltage of all the CTs should be at least twice the selected operating voltage.
Time Overcurrent Relays: Used on all feeding circuits of a transformer to provide back-up
to differential relay and relays on the load side of transformer.
An instantaneous highset overcurrent element is normally used to give fast fault clearance to severe faults.
Time Overcurrent relay is set to 150% of the rated current and time delay must be set long enough to avoid tripping due to magnetizing inrush. The instantaneous element should be set to about 25% above the maximum through fault current and above the maximum inrush current. With this setting instantaneous tripping is obtained only for severe faults on the feeding side of the transformer. Relay operates delayed for faults on the remaining parts of the windings and for faults on the load side of the transformer.
Historical evolution
electromechanical single function static single function digital single function digital multifunction relays numerical multifunction relays numerical multifunction systems
Comparison of technologies
conventional
protection functions realised with different HW Quantity and types of protection func. fixed and limited HW-extensions difficult No. of CT's and PT's higher Requirements to primary transformers higher
numerical
fixed HW prot.functions realised with SW Complete library of func. available
Adaptation by SW No.of CT's and PT's lower Requirement to primary transformers lower
Comparison of technologies
conventional
Settings and operation locally no documentation ( only hand-made) Only binary information
numerical
Settings and operation locally or remote Self-documentation of all settings and events etc. Numerical information, meas..values, events, etc. Selfsupervision and test functions reduces maintenance. Five different types only
Comparison of technologies
conventional
integration to control systems difficult only protection
only protection fixed solution
numerical
integration to control systems possible integrated protection and control possible monitoring with available information possible extension and new developments possible --> open architecture
Control Terminal
Line Terminal
M G
Generation
Transmission
Distribution
Load
Line protection
Transformer protection
Software Library
Generator protection
Human-machinecommunication
R
Units Bay
C E
Control
IEC 1375
Automation
Complete library with functions for bay control, monitoring, protection of generators, transformers.
Software and hardware proven and well introduced. Extremely powerful and cost efficient solutions for MV and HV applications.
Selective Protection of: Two or Three winding Transformer Auto Transformers Generator-Transformer unit Detection of Faults: All phase faults Earth faults at solidly or Low impedance grounded systems Inter-turn faults
No interposing CT's Standard wiring diagram Inputs for external functions (Buchholz, temperature sensors) available Programmable indication of tripping and signaling Indication of measuring values Continuous self-monitoring
Compact Design Flexible input and output configuration Open communication strategy
5 7 4 4 4 4 3 21 6
1) Analog input unit up to 6 transformer 2) Digital/Optical unit 3) CPU with serial port 4) Binary input/output unit
R
Units Bay
Hardware concept
Interbay bus
Analog input module, up to 9 input transformers for AC voltage and current CPU Binary I/O modules (max. 56 binary inputs, max. 32 binary outputs) Communication interface for the interbay bus (PC-Card) Connection module Supply module Communication interface for the process bus (MVB PC-Card)
3 4
5
7 6 4 4 4 4 381
6 7 8
Process bus
RIO580
R
Units Bay
Hardware concept
DC
+5V
CPU 486DX
SW-Key
DC AC
Power Supply
Remote I/O Remote I/OTrip Outputs Trip Remote I/O Sign. Outputs Outputs Trip Sign. Outputs Bin. Outputs Sign.Inputs Bin. Outputs Inputs Bin. Inputs
Trip Trip Outputs Trip Outputs /O Trip Outputs Sign. I / IO Sign. Ports Outputs I/O Outputs Sign. Ports Outputs I/ O Ports Sign. Outputs Bin. Ports Outputs Bin. Inputs Bin. Inputs Bin. Inputs Inputs
FLASH EPROM
PC-Card
Tranceiver
P C C A
Process bus
IEC1375 (MVB)
PC-Card
c
RAM
R
D
LED's
RS Serial 232 Controller RS Serial 232 Controller
d
LON
e.g. LON
SCS SMS
SPA / IEC870-5-103 (VDEW6)
MMC
Hardware concept
RX Tx
DC
+5V +15V -15V +24V
DPM
A/D DSP
CPU 486DX
SW-Key
Power
DC Supply AC
Remote I/O Remote I/OTrip Outputs Remote I/O Trip Sign. Outputs Outputs Trip Sign. Outputs Bin. Outputs Sign. Inputs Bin. Outputs Inputs Bin. Inputs
PC-Card
Tranceiver
P C C A R D
Process bus
IEC1375 (MVB)
PC-Card
c
RAM
LON
d
e.g. LON
LED's
RS Serial 232 Controller RS Serial 232 Controller
SCS SMS
SPA / IEC870-5-103 (VDEW6)
MMC
A/I
MUX
A/D
COM
DSP
COM
etc.
Trip
B/I
etc.
A/I
Digital filter
MUX
S H
A/D
B/O
et c
9
0 ms
0 ms
3 ms
5 ms
12 ms
21 ms 25 ms
Software Library
I> 51
I 87G U> 59 Z< 21 U0> 64S I>> 50 I 87T U< 27 X< 40 CTRL
I>U< 51-27
U 60 I TH 49 U/f 24 P<32
I> 51
I 87G U> 59 Z< 21 U0> 64S
I>U< 51-27
U 60 I TH 49 U/f 24 P<32
I> 51
I 87G U> 59 Z< 21 U0> 64S
I>U< 51-27
U 60 I TH 49 U/f 24 P<32
I2 46 F<> 81 Ucos 78
I2 46 F<> 81 Ucos 78
I2 46 F<> 81 Ucos 78
Logic
Timer Counter
Logic
Timer Counter
Logic
Timer Counter
Function Library
Metering (UlfPQ) Frequency (81) Overexcitation with Inverse time delay (24) Overexcitation (24) Instantaneous Overvoltage (27/59) Definite time Over and Under Voltage (27/59) Inverse time Overcurrent (51)
Function Library
4 parameter sets Counter, Timer MONITORING AND AUXILIARY FUNCTIONS Logic's (OR, AND, RS-FF) Remote Inputs and Outputs Additional I/O units Operating values I, U, P, Q, f Event recording Disturbance recorder Self supervision Remote communication Human Machine Interface Local Display unit
eg. SM300
Hardware-key
I TH 49
U> 59
FUP1 FUP1
Z< 21
AR 21 SC 25
Logics
Timer
RE21604
HMI functionality
LED-displays
Measurand display Event list Operating instructions Disturbance recorded information Self supervision Acknowledgement functions Optical connector for external HMI
HMI functionality
LED indications
Availability Start Operation
Measurand display
Analog channels (amplitude, angle, frequency) Functional measurands (e.g. differential current) Binary signals (I/O signals, tripping)
Event list (tripping values only, e.g. distance to fault) Operating instructions
HMI functionality
Disturbance recorder information
Number of recorded events and date
Diagnostics
Operating status of the unit Operating status of the interbay bus Operating status of the process bus
Acknowledgement functions
Resetting the LED's Resetting the latching outputs Event erasing Warm start
Binary inputs:
Blocking
Binary Outputs:
Tripping R phase trip S phase trip T phase trip
Measurements:
R phase summation current S phase summation current T phase summation current R phase restraining current S phase restraining current T phase restraining current
A D
AI 1,2,3
DIFF
A D
AI 7,8,9
AI 4,5,6
A D
AI 1,2,3
DIFF
A
D A D
AI 7,8,9
Operating Characteristic:
I1 I IN 3 Operation 2 Operation for I1 <b IN or I2 IN 1 v g 1 b 2 Restraint <b I = | I 1 + I 2 + I 3 | Operating (diff.) current Protected unit I2 I3
IH = = 0
I1 * I2 * Cos
Where I1 = greatest of I 1 , I 2 , I 3
I2 = I 1 + I 2 + I 3 - I1 IH IN = ( I1 - I2 )
I1
I2
I 4
cos = 1
3 2 v=50%
IH I1 I2 cos
IH = I1 = I2 = ILoad < (1.5...3)*Irated
1
g 1 2 3 4 5 IH
I1
I2
I 4
v= infinite
cos = 1
3 2
IH I1 I2 cos
IH = I1 = I2
1
g 1 2
v=50% 3 4 5 IH
I1
I2
I 4 3
cos < 0
IH = 0
1
g 1 2 3 4 5 IH
49
Current
Binary inputs:
Blocking
Binary Outputs:
Alarm Tripping
I<> 51
Analogue Inputs:
Current
Binary inputs:
Blocking
Measurements:
Current amplitude
Setting Parameters:
Delay: Time between the function
picking up and tripping I-Setting: Pick-up current setting MaxMin: Over or Under current NrOfPhases: 1ph or 3ph measurement CurrentInp: Analog current input channel BlockInp: Input for blocking the function Trip signal: Tripping signal
I<> 50
Current
Binary inputs:
Blocking
Measurements:
Setting Parameters:
Delay: Time between the function
picking up and tripping
Analogue Inputs:
Current
Binary inputs:
Blocking
Measurements:
Current amplitude
Setting Parameters:
Features: Single or three-phase measurement Maximum value, respectively minimum value, detection for three-phase measurement DC component filter Harmonic filter
U<> 59/27
Analogue Inputs:
Voltage
Binary inputs:
Blocking
Measurements:
Voltage amplitude
Setting Parameters:
Delay: Time between the function
picking up and tripping V-Setting: Voltage setting for tripping MaxMin: Over or Under voltage selection NrOfPhases: Number of phases included in the measurement VoltageInp: Analog input channel BlockInp: Input for blocking the function Trip signal: Tripping signal Start signal: Pick-up signal
Features: Processes instantaneous values and is therefore fast and largely independent of frequency Stores the peak value following pick-up Single and three-phase measurement Maximum value detection in the three-phase mode Adjustable lower frequency limit fmin
U>> 59/27
Analogue Inputs:
Voltage
Binary inputs:
Blocking
Measurements:
Setting Parameters:
Overexcitation (24)
Protection of generators and power transformers against excessive flux
Features: Evaluation of the voltage/frequency ratio Single phase measurement Definite time delay Determination of frequency from the complex voltage vector
U/ f 24
Analogue Inputs:
Voltage
Binary inputs:
Blocking
Measurements:
Voltage / frequency frequency
Setting Parameters:
Analogue Inputs:
Voltage
Binary inputs:
Blocking
Measurements:
Voltage / frequency frequency
Frequency (81)
Under and Overfrequency, Load shedding
Features: Measurement of one voltage Frequency calculation based on the complex voltage vector Undervoltage blocking Insensitive to DC components & harmonics
Analogue Inputs:
Voltage
Binary inputs:
Blocking
Metering (UIfPQ)
Measurement of voltage,current,real & apparent power and frequency.
Features: Single phase measurement Phase-to-ground or optionally phase-to-phase voltage measurement Suppression of DC components and harmonics in current & voltages
Binary inputs:
none none
Binary Outputs:
Measurements:
Voltage (unit UN) Current (unit IN) Real power (unit PN (P)) Apparent power (unit PN (Q)) Frequency (unit Hz)
The right information for the right person at the right time
SMS
Remote Substation Monitoring System
On-demand information
SCS
Substation Control System
On-line information
SMS
Local Substation Monitoring System
On-demand information
TERMINAL
GPS-Clock
POWER
Modem
GPS 166
ACQR LOCK SATELLITE CONTROLLED CLOCK
V1
OVP
MENU
CLR ACK
NEXT
INC
MEINBERG
Switch
ABB Strmberg Asea Brown Boveri
FAULT On 1 2 3 4 Local Serial
SRIO 1000M
Minute pulse
12 3 4 5 6 7 8
SRIO
SPA-LOOP
RET 316*4
RET 316*4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
C E
C E
RE.316
TERMINAL
Event recorder
Last specified number of events stored Event-No., Date, Time, Funct.-No........... Selectable information Function outputs (Start / Trip and special outputs) Binary inputs Trip-values Status ON/ OFF per event Absolute and relative time (after GFC fulfillment)
Disturbance recorder
9 analog channels 16 binary channels (function outputs, binary inputs) 12 function measurements (e.g Idelta, I2, Z ) Total record time 5s Pre-Event 400ms,Event 3000ms, Post-Event 400ms Selectable triggering (GFC, trip or functions and binary inputs) Stop on full or overwrite mode
t pre
tf t lim
tp
t pre tf t p1 t lim
Pre-fault time (0.04- 0.40 sec) Fault time Post-fault time (0.1 - 3.0 sec) Time limit for total recording (0.5 - 4.0 sec)
Selfsupervision
Memories
Read/Write comparison Checksum function
Program Processing
Watchdog functions
A/D-Conversion
continuous conversion of 2 reference signals
DC
+5V +15V -15V +24V
A/D
DSP
CPU 486
SW-Key
Power
DC Supply AC
FLASH EPROM
3ph-Voltages and-Currents
Symmetry check
RAM
P C C A R D
Process bus
PC-Card
c
LON
d
LON
Signal Transfer
Error correction coding
MMC
LED's
Serial Data Transfer Hamming distance 4 to 6 by frame format definition, 16 bit CRC or SPA / IEC 870-5-103 check sum+parity bit
Test function
Password protected Test protection functions send a numerical value to each function test characteristic setting and related outputs Test signaling relays Test tripping relays Test LED's
Advantages
Self monitoring Long term stability Event recorder Self documentation Number of CT cores reduced
REFERENCES
ABB manuals
Alsthom manuals
Easun Reyrolle manuals Art & science of protective relaying by Russell Mason