Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Types of Bone
Lamellar Bone - Orderly cellular distribution Collagen fibers arranged in parallel layers Normal adult bone Woven Bone or immature bone (non-lamellar) Randomly oriented collagen fibers In adults, seen at sites of fracture healing, tendon or ligament attachment and in pathological conditions
Lamellar Bone
Cortical bone - Comprised of osteons (Haversian systems) runs longitudinally Osteons communicate with medullary cavity by Volkmanns canals that run horizontally
Haversian System
osteocyte
osteon
Haversian canal
Volkmanns canal
Woven Bone
Coarse with random orientation Weaker than lamellar bone Normally remodeled to lamellar bone
Bone Composition
Cells Osteocytes Osteoblasts Osteoclasts Extracellular Matrix Organic (35%) Collagen (type I) 90% Osteocalcin, osteonectin, proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans, lipids (ground substance) Inorganic (65%) Primarily hydroxyapatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH)2
Osteoblasts
Derived from mesenchymal stem cells Line the surface of the bone and produce osteoid Immediate precursor is fibroblast-like preosteoblasts
Picture courtesy Gwen Childs, PhD.
Osteocytes
Osteoblasts surrounded by bone matrix trapped in lacunae Function poorly understood regulating bone metabolism in response to stress and strain
Picture courtesy Gwen Childs, PhD.
Osteocyte Network
Osteocyte lacunae are connected by canaliculi Osteocytes are interconnected by long cell processes that project through the canaliculi Preosteoblasts also have connections via canaliculi with the osteocytes Network probably facilitates response of bone to mechanical and chemical factors
Osteoclasts
Derived from hematopoietic stem cells (monocyte precursor cells) Multinucleated cells whose function is bone resorption Reside in bone resorption pits (Howships lacunae) Parathyroid hormone stimulates receptors on osteoblasts that activate osteoclastic bone resorption
FRACTURE
Fracture is a break in the structural continuity of bone . It may be a crack , a crumpling or a splintering of the cortex.
TYPES OF FRACTURES
ON BASIS OF ETIOLOGY - Traumatic fracture - pathologic fractures due to some diseases - stress fracture ON BASIS OF DISPLACEMEMT - undisplaced - displaced translation ( shift ) angulation ( tilt ) rotation ( twist )
ON BASIS OF RELATIONSHIP WITH EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT - simple / closed fracture - open fracture ON BASIS OF PATTERN - transverse - oblique - spiral - comminuted - segmental
Cutting Cones
Primarily a mechanism to remodel bone Osteoclasts at the front of the cutting cone remove bone Trailing osteoblasts lay down new bone
Courtesy Drs. Charles Schwab and Bruce Martin
Blood Supply
Long bones have four blood supplies
Nutrient artery (intramedullary) Periosteal vessels Metaphyseal vessels Epiphysial vessels
Periosteal vessels
Nutrient artery
Metaphysea vessels
Nutrient Artery
Normally the major blood supply for the diaphyseal cortex (80 to 85%) Enters the long bone via a nutrient foramen Forms medullary arteries up and down the bone
Periosteal Vessels
Arise from the capillary-rich periosteum Supply outer 15 to 20% of cortex normally Capable of supplying a much greater proportion of the cortex in the event of injury to the medullary blood supply
Metaphyseal Vessels
Arise from periarticular vessels Penetrate the thin cortex in the metaphyseal region and anastomose with the medullary blood supply
Fracture healing
Introduction
Fracture healing is a complex process that requires the recruitment of appropriate cells (fibroblasts, macrophages, chondroblasts, osteoblasts, osteoclasts) and the subsequent expression of the appropriate genes (genes that control matrix production and organization, growth factors, transcription factors) at the right time and in the right anatomical location
HISTORY
In 1975, Cruess and Dumont proposed that fracture healing may be considered to consist of three overlapping phases: an inflammatory phase, a
For convenience, we describe fracture healing in terms of the three phases recognized by Cruess and Dumont, noting
that the reparative phase combines several processes. Stages of Fracture Healing Inflammation stage of haematoma formation Repair stage of granulation tissue stage of callus formation Remodelling
Duration
The inflammatory phase peaks within 48 hours and is quite diminished by 1 week after fracture. The reparative phase becomes activated within the first few days after fracture and persists for 2-3 months.
Inflammation
inflammatory phase is identical to the typical inflammatory response of most tissues to traumatic injury. Vasodilation and hyperemia, presumably mediated by histamines, prostaglandins, and various cytokines, accompany invasion of the injury site by neutrophils, basophils, and phagocytes that participate in clearing away necrotic debris.
Disruption of blood vessels in the bone, marrow, periosteum, and surrounding tissue disruption at the time of injury results in the extravasation of blood at the fracture site and the formation of a hematoma Local vessels thrombose causing bony necrosis at the edges of the fracture Increased capillary permeability results in a local inflammatory milieu
Osteoinductive growth factors stimulate the proliferation and differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells
Reparative phase
The reparative phase, which usually begins 4 or 5 days after injury, is characterized by the invasion of pluripotential mesenchymal cells, which differentiate into fibroblasts, chondroblasts, and osteoblasts and form a soft primary fracture callus. Proliferation of blood vessels (angiogenesis) within the periosteal tissues and marrow space helps route the appropriate cells to the fracture site and contributes to the formation of a bed of granulation tissue.
Mesenchymal cells at the fracture site proliferate differentiate and produce the fracture callus Two types of callus : Primary callus or Soft callus forms in the central region in which there is relatively low oxygen tension . The primary callus may consist of cartilage, fibrous tissue, osteoid, woven bone, and vessels. If the primary callus is successful, healing progresses to the stage of bridging callus or hard callus. Hard callus formed at the periphery of the callus by intermembranous bone formation
Repair
Remodeling
The biochemical composition of the fracture callus matrix changes as repair progresses. The cells replace the fibrin clot with a loose fibrous matrix containing glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, and types I and III collagen In many regions they convert this tissue to more dense fibrocartilage or hyaline-like cartilage. With formation of hyaline-like cartilage, type II collagen, cartilage-specific proteoglycan and link protein content increase.
Woven bone is gradually converted to lamellar bone Medullary cavity is reconstituted Stability of the fracture fragments progressively increases . eventually clinical union occurs that is, the fracture site becomes stable and pain-free. Radiographic union occurs when plain radiographs show bone trabeculae or cortical bone crossing the fracture site, and often occurs later than clinical union . Despite successful fracture healing, the bone density of the involved limb may be decreased for years
Gap Healing
Gaps less than 200-500 microns are primarily filled with woven bone that is subsequently remodeled into lamellar bone Larger gaps are healed by indirect bone healing (partially filled with fibrous tissue that undergoes secondary ossification)
I.
Systemic factors or patient variables A. Age B. Activity level including 1. immobilization C. Nutritional status D. Hormonal factors 1. Growth hormone 2. Corticosteroids 3. Others (thyroid, estrogen, androgen, calcitonin, parathyroid hormone, prostaglandins) E. Cigarette smoking
E.
Diseases: diabetes,anemia,neuropathies, tabes dorsalis F. Vitamin deficiencies: A, C, D, K G. Drugs: nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), anticoagulants, factor XIII, calcium channel blockers (verapamil), cytotoxins, diphosphonates, phenytoin (Dilantin), sodium fluoride, tetracycline H. Other substances (nicotine, alcohol) I. Hyperoxia J. Systemic growth factors K. Environmental temperature L. Central nervous system trauma
II. Local factors or tissue variables A. Factors independent of injury, treatment, or complications 1. Type of bone cortical or cancellous 2. Abnormal bone a. Radiation necrosis b. Infection c. Tumors and other pathological conditions 3. Denervation
B.
Factors depending on injury or injury variables 1. Degree of local damage a. Compound fracture b. Comminution of fracture c. segmental fractures d. Velocity of injury e. Low circulatory levels of vitamin K1 2. Extent of disruption of vascular supply to bone, its fragments (macrovascular osteonecrosis), or soft tissues; 3. Type and location of fracture (one or two bones, e.g., tibia and fibula or tibia alone 4. Loss of bone 5. Soft-tissue interposition 6. Local growth factors 7. Intraarticular fractures
C.
Factors depending on treatment OR treatment variables 1. Extent of surgical trauma (blood supply, heat) 2. Implant-induced altered blood flow 3. Degree and kind of rigidity of internal or external fixation and the influence of timing 4. Degree, duration, and direction of loadinduced deformation of bone and soft tissues 5. Apposition of fracture fragments (gap, displacement, overdistraction) 6. Factors stimulating posttraumatic osteogenesis (bone grafts, bone morphogenetic protein, electrical stimulation, surgical technique, intermittent venous stasis .
D.
Cytokines
Interleukin-1,-4,-6,-11, macrophage and granulocyte/macrophage (GM) colonystimulating factors (CSFs) and Tumor Necrosis Factor
Sixteen different BMPs have been identified BMP2-7,9 are osteoinductive BMP2,6, & 9 may be the most potent in osteoblastic differentiation
Involved in progenitor cell transformation to preosteoblasts
BMP-7 approved for use in recalcitrant nonunions in patients for whom autografting is not a good option (i.e. medically unstable, previous harvesting of all iliac crest sites, etc.)
BMP-7 equally effective as ICBG in nonunions (small series: need larger studies) Must be applied locally because of rapid systemic clearance
BMP Antagonists
May have important role in bone formation Noggin Extra-cellular inhibitor Competes with BMP-2 for receptors BMP-13 found to limit differentiation of mesenchymal stromal cells Inhibits osteogenic differentiation
Stimulates bone cell growth Mitogen for cells of mesenchymal origin Increases type I collagen synthesis by increasing the number of osteoblasts PDGF-BB stimulates bone resorption by increasing the number of osteoclasts
Cytokines
Interleukin-1,-4,-6,-11, macrophage and granulocyte/macrophage (GM) colonystimulating factors (CSFs) and Tumor Necrosis Factor Stimulate bone resorption
IL-1 is the most potent
Peak during 1st 24 hours then again during remodeling Regulate endochondral bone formation
Prostaglandins / Leukotrienes
Effect on bone resorption is species dependent and their overall effects in humans unknown Prostaglandins of the E series
Stimulate osteoblastic bone formation Inhibit activity of isolated osteoclasts
Leukotrienes
Stimulate osteoblastic bone formation Enhance the capacity of isolated osteoclasts to form resorption pits
Hormones
Estrogen
Stimulates fracture healing through receptor mediated mechanism Modulates release of a specific inhibitor of IL-1
Thyroid hormones
Thyroxine and triiodothyronine stimulate osteoclastic bone resorption
Glucocorticoids
Inhibit calcium absorption from the gut causing increased PTH and therefore increased osteoclastic bone resorption
Hormones (cont.)
Parathyroid Hormone Intermittent exposure stimulates Osteoblasts Increased bone formation Growth Hormone Mediated through IGF-1 (Somatomedin-C) Increases callus formation and fracture strength
Vascular Factors
Metalloproteinases Degrade cartilage and bones to allow invasion of vessels Angiogenic factors Vascular-endothelial growth factors Mediate neo-angiogenesis & endothelialcell specific mitogens Angiopoietin (1&2) Regulate formation of larger vessels and branches
Electromagnetic Field
Electromagnetic (EM) devices are based on Wolffs Law that bone responds to mechanical stress: In vitro bone deformation produces piezoelectric currents and streaming potentials. Exogenous EM fields may stimulate bone growth and repair by the same mechanism Clinical efficacy very controversial
No studies have shown PEMF to be effective in gap healing or pseudarthrosis
Types of EM Devices
Microamperes Direct electrical current Capacitively coupled electric fields Pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF)
PEMF
Approved by the FDA for the treatment of nonunions Efficacy of bone stimulation appears to be frequency dependant
Extremely low frequency (ELF) sinusoidal electric fields in the physiologic range are most effective (15 to 30 Hz range) Specifically, PEMF signals in the 20 to 30 Hz range (postural muscle activity) appear more effective than those below 10 Hz (walking)
Ultrasound
Low-intensity ultrasound is approved by the FDA for stimulating healing of fresh fractures Modulates signal transduction, increases gene expression, increases blood flow, enhances bone remodeling and increases callus torsional strength in animal models
Ultrasound
Human clinical trials show a decreased time of healing in fresh fractures treated nonoperatively
Four level 1 studies show a decrease in healing time up to 38%
Has also been shown to decrease the healing time in smokers potentially reversing the ill effects of smoking
Summary
Fracture healing is influenced by many variables including mechanical stability, electrical environment, biochemical factors and blood flow Our ability to enhance fracture healing will increase as we better understand the interaction between these variables
If you would like to volunteer as an author for the Resident Slide Project or recommend updates to any of the following slides, please send an e-mail to hardikpawar103@gmail.com