0RGANISATION OF SMALL COMPUTER

Computer architecture refers to the various components of the system and how these are designed to work together. A Computer system comprises of several components.

key components of a computer architecture

INPUT UNIT OUTPUT UNIT CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT Arithmetic and Logic Unit(ALU) Memory Unit(MU) Control Unit(CU)

Simple computer organization

Central Processing Unit = brain Executes programs by: Fetching and decoding the next instruction from memory Execute it Consists of: Control Unit Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) Registers (high-speed memory) Program Counter (PC) Instruction Register (IR) I/O Devices

Control Unit Arithmetic Logic Unit Registers

Main Memory

Disk

Printer

Bus

CPU
The central processing unit (CPU) : (PROCESSOR)(BRAIN) Main function of cpu is to execute programs stored in memory 1. Register set: (high speed memory units) Stores intermediate data during the execution of instructions; 2. Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): Performs the required micro-operations for executing the instructions; 3. Control unit: (controls the flow of data and instructions to and from memory)supervises the transfer of information among the registers and instructs the ALU as to which operation to perform by generating control signals.
Control Unit Arithmetic Logic Unit Registers

Input/Output (I/O) devices

These are the devices using which the user provides input instances to computer and get the output from computer. keyboard, mouse, light pen, scanner, microphone, touch-

sensitive screen, printer,

speaker, screen, etc

Memory * Data and programs are stored Types * Internal Memory *Primary/ main memory *Cache Memory *Secondary Memory

Internal Memory Registers * small memory units * Volatile memory Primary/Main memory : The memory in a computer is made up of semi-conductions. Semi-conduction

memories are of two types : * Any location can be accessed in any order RAM and ROM
* RAM ( Volatile) SRAM , DRAM , SDRAM , DDRSDRAM * ROM( Non-Volatile) PROM , EPROM , EEPROM

Cache memory: is a special type of memory devise which is faster compared to the primary memory

Two types of Cache * Internal Cache * External Cache Internal Cache * within the cpu * speed and size External Cache * CPU, RAM and ROM * Faster that RAM and ROM

Secondary Memory *Execution of programs * Slower * Hard disk, CD, Floppy disk * properties * large size * contents stored are permanent * Time * Cost

Bus :A bus is a set of wires(parallel wires) that connect the above components. Buses are responsible for movement of data from input devices, to output devices and from/to CPU and memory. Unidirectional or bi-directional. Data bus , Address bus ,Control bus Size of the Bus is known as bus width.

Different types of Registers(cpu)

GPRs-which r used by programmer in the programs
SPRs-used by CPU for temporary storage of data for calculations and other purpose Memory Address Register(MAR) Memory Buffer Rester(MBR) Instruction Register(IR) Program Counters(PC)

Harvard Architecture H Architecture uses separate memory for storing instructions and data. Simultaneously access the both memories. loading and modifying programs an entirely offline process.

The von Neumann architecture (June 30, 1945)is a computer design model that uses a processing unit and a single separate storage structure to hold both instructions and data. It is named after mathematician and early.
Modern computers are usually of this type. "stored-program computer"

 von Neumann vs. Harvard

von Neumann
Same memory holds data, instructions. A single set of address/data buses between CPU and memory

Harvard
Separate memories for data and instructions. Two sets of address/data buses between CPU and memory

Harvard allows two simultaneous memory fetches

Execution Cycle
CPU executes one instruction at a time (sequentially); A sequence of instructions is also referred to as a program. Execution process of instruction stored in memory in 3Phases. Fetch: Instructions r retrieved from the memory. Decode: Those instruction retrieved by memory r decoded by CU. Execute: Decoded instructions r executed by ALU.

General format for an instruction:

Opcode Source Destination

Opcode

Source1

Source2

Destination

The opcode field denotes the operation to be done (ADD,Mul.MOV) The Source and Destination fields denote the operands.(Data parts of opcode)

 Example : Add R1,R2 Fetch phase: The CU is responsible for the execution of phase. 1.The contents of PC are transferred to memory.
2.The content of the main memory as pointed by the MAR is accessed through the address bus.

3. The instruction is fetched into MBR. These contents flows through the data bus. 4. The instruction is then transferred from MBR to IR.

 Decode phase: The instructor decoder unit in the CU is the responsible execution of this phase. 5 ..The opcode path of the instruction is transferred to the instruction decoder. 6. The instruction detector then detects the opcode path(ADD),an interprets and understands what to do. 7.The PC is then incremented to point to the next instruction

 Execution Phase: Is executed by the ALU. 8. ones the instructions are decoded the operands are fetched -- the operands can be either in the Register or in the memory(it is in R1 and R2) -- ALU Perform the operation. -- Result is finally stored in R2.

Instruction Categories
Instructions instruct the CPU with information on what needs to be done. Instructions can be categorized based on the operations that they performed. Arithmetic instructions:ADD,SUB,Mul etc.. Logical instructions: and ,or,equal.etc.. Program Control Instructions: program control instruction changes the sequence of execution. I/O Instruction: I/O instructions are responsible for transfer of information from I/O devices to cpu and memory and vice versa.(True or False).

 Data Transfer Instructions:Performs operation which involve transfer of data. The following are the types of data transfer instructions. Register-Register:-Data Transfer takes place from one register to another. EX:-MOVE R1,R2 Register-Memory/Memory-Register:-Data transfer takes place between memory and register. EX:-MOVE R1,6000H Memory-Memory:-Data Transfer takes place between two memory locations. EX:-MOVE 5000H,6000H.

What Peripheral Devices Suit Your Needs?

Input Devices

Output Devices

Storage Devices

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5.1 Input Devices

Input device captures information and translates it into a form that can be processed and used by other parts of your computer. Keyboards Pointing devices Game controllers Scanners Styluses Microphones Digital cameras Web cams

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Input Devices

The keyboard is the most common input device. Types of keyboards include:

Wireless Multimedia and one-touch access Portable keyboards for PDAs

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Types of Input Devices

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Pointing Devices

Pointing devices are mainly used to choose and enter commands Pointing devices tend to have PS/2 connectors or USB connectors

PS/2 connector fits into a PS/2 port, which a small round socket with small holes that fit the pins on the connector
USB connectors fit into USB ports, and these are small rectangular openings on the back or front of your computer, or even on your keyboard or monitor

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Pointing Devices

Various pointing devices are available

Types of pointing devices:

Mouse
Mechanical Optical

mouse

mouse mouse

Wireless

Trackball Touchpad

Pointing stick

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Game Controller

Game controllers are used mainly to play games

Types of gaming devices

Gamepads Joysticks

Gaming wheels
Force feed

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Specialized Input Devices

Other types of input devices include:

Scanners
Styluses Microphones Digital cameras Web cams

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Scanner
Scanner

is a light sensitive device that helps you copy or capture images, photos, and artwork that exist on paper. Types of scanners include:
Flatbed

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Styluses

Stylus is an input device consisting of a thin stick that uses pressure to enter information or to click and point Styluses are used with:
PDAs
Tablet

PCs Graphics tablets

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Microphones

Microphones are used to input audio Three main types of microphones are:
Desktop

microphones Headsets Directional microphones

Speech recognition is increasingly being included in application software

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Digital Cameras

Digital cameras are used to:

Download images to a computer Post pictures to the Web Produce videos

Resolution is measured in megapixels Higher the resolution, better the image quality, but the more expensive the camera

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Web Cams

Web cam is a video camera that can be used to take images for uploading to the Web

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5.2 Output Devices

Output devices take information within your computer and present it to you in a form that you can understand Main output devices: Monitors Printers Speakers
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Flat Panel Display Devices

Devices with flat-panel displays
Tablet PCs
PDAs Cellular phones Desktop computers

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Monitors
CRTs Flat-panel displays
Gas plasma LCD (liquid crystal display)
Passive matrix Active matrix
Called TFT (thin film transistor) Separate transistor for every pixel

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Screen Talk
Screen size measured as a diagonal line across the screen from corner to opposite corner Resolution the number of pixels displayed on the screen (the higher the resolution, the closer together the dots) Pixels (or picture element) dots that make up the image on your screen Dot pitch is the distance between the centers of a pair of like-colored pixels Refresh rate the speed with which a monitor redraws the image of the screen, and is measured in hertz
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Printers
Inkjet most popular
Makes images by forcing droplets through nozzles Top speed is 20 pages per minute

Laser
Forms images using an electrostatic process Prints between 3 and 30 pages per minute
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Printers - Cont
Resolution of a printer is the number of dots per inch (dpi) it produces. Higher the resolution, better the image, and usually the more costly the printer

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Printers - Cont.

Multifunction printer:

Scan, copy, fax, and print Can be either inkjet or laser

Cost less than buying individual units

Take up less desk space

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Speakers

A speaker is a device that produces computer output as sound Speakers are common devices in computer systems Examples include:

Built-in speaker Two-device set speakers Surround sound speakers

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5.3 Storage Devices

Storage device stores information to be recalled and used at a later time Storage device consists of: Storage medium Storage device Three major technology types for information storage: Magnetic Optical or laser Flash memory
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Storage Medium Terms

Byte Kilobyte (KB) Megabytes (MB) Gigabytes (GB) Terabytes (TB) Petabyte (PB) Exabyte (EB)
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= 8 bits 1 Thousand Bytes 1 Million Bytes 1 Billion Bytes 1 Trillion Bytes 1 quadrillion Bytes 1 quintillion Bytes

Magnetic and Optical Storage

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Magnetic Storage Devices: Internal Magnetic Hard Disk

Magnetic storage devices can be either internal or external

Internal magnetic hard disks are fixed inside the system unit External magnetic hard disks are portable

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Magnetic Storage Devices: Internal Magnetic Hard Disk

Internal hard disk is a magnetic storage device with
One or more thin platters that store information sealed inside the disk drive. Read/write heads access the information on surface Heads read information while copying it from disk to RAM Heads write information when copying it from RAM to disk
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Magnetic Storage Devices: External Magnetic Hard Disk

External hard disks are magnetic storage media which are portable storage units that you can connect to your computer as necessary
Great for backup storage devices Ability to transport your hard disk from one computer to another

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Hard Drives
Long term storage system and application software Operating system and application software are copied from the hard disk to memory Capacity measured in gigabytes

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Floppy Disks and Zip Disks

Removable magnetic storage media come in two basic types:
Traditional floppy disks Zip disks

These storage media are useful for:

Storing files for backup or security purposes Transferring files from one computer to another
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Removable Magnetic Storage: Floppy Disk

Floppy Mylar disk
Housed inside a hard plastic casing Thin, flexible plastic disk
3.5 inch floppy disks
also called floppies, diskettes, floppy disks Holds about 1.44 megabytes of information

High-capacity disks
Zip disk

p. 5.144 Fig. 5.15

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Removable Magnetic Storage: Zip Disk

High capacity plastic platter disk
Called removable hard disks Provide a higher storage capacity than Mylar disks
Example - Zip disk with capacity of 100MB, 250MB, and 750MB

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Optical Storage
CDs DVDs Both are optical storage and have three formats:
Read-only Write-once Read-and-write

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Optical Storage Media

Read-Only
CD-ROM DVD-ROM

Fully Read-and-Write
CD-RW DVD-RW or DVD+RW or DVD-RAM

One-Time Writable
CD-R DVD-R DVD+R

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Flash Memory Cards

Flash memory cards have highcapacity storage laminated inside a small piece of plastic Flash flash memory cards do not need a drive with moving parts to operate

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Flash Memory Talk

CompactFlash (CF) xD-Picture Card (xD) SmartMedia (SM) Card SecureDigital (SD) card and MultiMediaCards (MMC) Memory Stick Media

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Flash Memory Card Readers

Some devices have flash memory slots into which you slide your flash memory card Other devices can use an external flash memory card reader in order to transfer information A flash memory drive is a flash memory storage medium for a computer that is small enough to fit in your pocket and usually plugs directly into a USB port

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